This is a guest post in partnership with Mayo Clinic.

A brain tumor diagnosis changes everything in an instant. 

For patients and families, the questions come all at once: Is it operable? How dangerous is it? What happens next? Who should we trust? And perhaps most urgently: how soon should treatment begin? 

But according to Dr. Ian Parney, a neurosurgeon and clinician-scientist at Mayo Clinic, the complexity of brain tumor care means no single specialist should answer those questions alone. 

“These really are complex cases,” Dr. Parney says. “A simple brain tumor case for us is something that may be very complicated and unusual in a more general practice.” 

That complexity is one reason multidisciplinary care has become increasingly central to modern neuro-oncology. At Mayo Clinic, neurosurgeons, neuro-oncologists, radiation oncologists, radiologists, pathologists and other specialists work together in real time to evaluate cases, develop treatment plans and adapt care as patients move through treatment. 

The approach is built around a simple idea: brain tumors move fast, and care teams need to move just as quickly. 

Dr. Parney says the scale of Mayo Clinic’s brain tumor program plays a major role in shaping patient care. 

A few years ago, Mayo Clinic in Rochester alone published data showing that physicians there collectively performed thousands of brain tumor procedures in a single year. That number grows significantly when considering patients receiving neurosurgical care, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and follow-up treatment across the Mayo Clinic enterprise. 

“When you then look at the entire Mayo Clinic enterprise, it’s really just a tremendous volume of cross-disciplinary experience across the enterprise,” Dr. Parney says. 

That experience matters because brain tumors are rarely straightforward. Tumors differ depending on where they originate, how aggressively they grow and what critical brain structures surround them. 

“Often we see patients that have been told their tumor is inoperable somewhere else, and we might have a different opinion on that,” he says. 

But surgery is only one part of the equation. 

“It really is the overall care of that patient,” Dr. Parney says. “We have an incredible group of neuro-oncologists, both neurologists and medical oncologists, who are expert at treating patients with brain tumors of all sorts. Same with radiation oncologists.” 

Behind those specialists is a broader network that includes radiologists, pathologists, nuclear medicine physicians and clinical researchers who help shape decisions about diagnosis, surgical planning, radiation strategies, systemic therapies and clinical trial eligibility. 

One of the challenges in brain tumor care is balancing urgency with thoughtful decision-making. 

At Mayo Clinic, Dr. Parney says some patients can be evaluated within 48 hours if desired. More commonly, patients meet with multiple specialists during a single visit, complete imaging and testing in a condensed timeframe and leave with a coordinated care plan. 

“To be able to come here, see everybody that they need to see, get all the tests that they need to have done in a short period of time, come up with a unified decision and act on it, often within 24 hours of arriving here, is something that’s quite exceptional,” Dr. Parney says. 

That coordination is supported both informally and structurally. Physicians across specialties work in close physical proximity, while multidisciplinary tumor boards meet weekly to review cases and discuss treatment planning. 

“There’s kind of the inherent collaborative nature and physical co-location that we have,” Dr. Parney says. “But there’s also structural things through some of these tumor boards to get that kind of multidisciplinary overview quickly for patients.” 

The collaborative model can also reduce delays and fragmentation. 

“I do hear stories about patients that will go somewhere else and the surgeon will say, ‘Well, we need to have you see a neuro-oncologist, but that’ll be a month from now,’” Dr. Parney says. “A month is a long time to wait when you have a brain tumor.”

The multidisciplinary model does more than improve logistics. It can also change treatment decisions. 

Dr. Parney recalled the case of a young patient who arrived in an emergency situation with a very large brain tumor. Surgeons removed the most aggressive portion of the tumor to stabilize the patient, but a significant portion of the tumor remained. 

Initially, some members of the broader care team questioned whether additional surgery would be safe. 

Through multidisciplinary discussions, however, the team reconsidered their options. 

“Through these multidisciplinary discussions, we were able to get to the point where we said, ‘Now that the situation is a little bit safer, we could do an awake operation with speech mapping and take out as much of the rest of this tumor as we safely could,’” Dr. Parney says. 

The case reflects one of the central tensions in neuro-oncology: balancing aggressive treatment with quality of life. 

“We can definitely take more out if we wanted to,” Dr. Parney says. “The radiation oncologist could treat a larger area or a higher dose. Neuro-oncology doctors could treat with higher doses or combinations of medications. But if doing those things causes harm that people don’t recover from, then any benefit is lost.” 

Instead, the goal becomes what neurosurgeons call a “maximal safe resection,” removing as much tumor as possible while preserving critical brain function.

Collaboration is increasingly supported by advanced imaging, diagnostics and surgical technology. 

Among the tools Mayo Clinic uses are intraoperative MRI systems, which allow surgeons to obtain updated MRI scans during surgery itself. Because the brain can shift during surgery, updated imaging can help surgeons determine whether additional tumor can safely be removed. 

“It’s kind of the best image guidance we can get,” Dr. Parney says. 

The technology is often combined with motor, speech and visual pathway mapping techniques, including awake brain surgery in certain patients. 

Mayo Clinic physicians also use advanced imaging tools such as 7 Tesla MRI systems, specialized PET imaging tracers and molecular pathology testing that analyzes the genetic features of tumors. 

“Mayo has been at the forefront of defining those in brain tumor patients and how they impact outcomes,” Dr. Parney says.

Despite major advances, Dr. Parney says there is still significant work ahead, particularly for aggressive tumors such as glioblastoma. 

“We get better at treating these all the time,” he says. “We are better now than we were a year ago or five years ago, and we’re going to be better a year from now or five years from now.” 

Part of that progress is being driven by a shift in how researchers evaluate new therapies. Researchers are increasingly focused on determining early whether therapies actually reach brain tumors and affect them biologically. 

Dr. Parney is involved in glioblastoma research efforts using “window of opportunity” studies, where patients may receive experimental therapies before surgery so researchers can analyze whether a drug reached the tumor and behaved as expected. 

For patients facing a diagnosis today, Dr. Parney emphasizes that even in the most difficult situations, there are still options. “This is never a situation of ‘There’s nothing we can do,’” he says. “There’s always hope. There’s always something that we can do.” 

He also encourages patients and families to pause before feeling pressured into immediate decisions. 

“With very few exceptions, you have a little bit of time to think about it,” Dr. Parney says. “You can investigate other options and find out what’s going to be best for you.”  

His best advice? “Breathe,” he says. “Remember that there are treatments available for this. Be hopeful. And get opinions from people so that you understand what your options are.”

Your brain and digestive system are more connected than you might think. They send nerve signals back and forth, and this close relationship is crucial to human survival, well-being, and brain health.

You’ve most likely used or at least heard expressions like “having a gut feeling” or “trusting your gut.” In fact, there’s more truth to these statements than you might expect. That’s because the gut—in other words, the digestive tract, including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines—is directly linked to the brain. This relationship is known as the gut–brain axis.

The Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

Like other internal organs, the gastrointestinal tract is controlled and regulated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which governs involuntary functions. The ANS has three divisions: the sympathetic nervous system, which causes organs to jump into action, for example as part of the fight-or-flight response; the parasympathetic nervous system, which has the opposite function, helping the body calm down and return to baseline levels of low stress; and the enteric nervous system (ENS), which controls digestive functioning. The ENS is sometimes categorized as a separate system from the ANS, and remarkably it can operate entirely independently of the brain in some situations. Nerve cells in the ENS can gather information about conditions inside the digestive tract, process that information locally, and coordinate a quick response, all without sending messages to the brain. 

The brain communicates with the gut more than any other body system.

The structure of the ENS is a like a mesh of neurons embedded into the walls of the digestive tract, which together control motility, or the contraction of muscles to move food and other matter through the natural tubing of the digestive system. These neurons also control the secretion of digestive enzymes that break down food into usable nutrients. The ENS consists of more than 500 million neurons. After the brain, which contains about 86 billion neurons, the ENS is the body’s largest and most complex neural network. In fact, the ENS has about five times more neurons than the entire spinal cord. Because the ENS contains so many nerve cells, because it communicates so closely with the brain, and because it can also function independently, the ENS is sometimes called the body’s “second brain.”

How the Gut Connects to the Brain

The brain communicates with the ENS more than any other body system, sharing vast amounts of information through nerve signals. This connection has been a fundamental part of human survival and evolution. That’s because our body relies on identifying healthy nutrients and stopping digestion if harmful substances are consumed. When the body recognizes harmful substances in the digestive system, alarms are triggered, so that the toxic materials can be eliminated. When you experience physical pain, your brain sends signals to try to protect you from similar harm in the future. Similarly, the brain tells the gut to recognize and protect the body from harmful toxins. In both cases, this aversion response involves the emotional parts of your brain.

The nervous system connection between the gut and the brain’s emotion centers is quite strong. It causes physical sensations in the stomach to feel more intense and influences the body to release stress hormones. So, if you have a “feeling in your gut,” it’s not just a saying—your body really is trying to tell you something. You may be experiencing an emotional response to signals from your ENS.

Research published in Nature suggests that bacteria in the gut can influence depression, anxiety, autism, and possibly even schizophrenia.

Communication between the gut and the brain influences many daily biological, mental, and emotional processes. The gut–brain axis manages the physical mechanisms of digestion. It involves the endocrine system, which releases hormones and helps us monitor hunger, satiety (feeling full), and stress levels. It helps us determine our food preferences, and it’s involved with food cravings, sensitivities, and intolerances. It plays a primary role in metabolism, which affects mood and behavior. Plus, it’s directly connected to pain sensitivity, cognitive function, and immunity. 

The Gut Microbiome

The human digestive tract contains trillions of microorganisms, such as bacteria, which collectively form an environment called a microbiome. There are about ten times more living microbes in the gut than there are cells in the entire human body! These organisms are not inherently invasive or harmful. Rather, they have a mutualistic relationship with humans that’s essential for our growth and development, our health, and disease prevention.

Many of these microbes produce or help produce chemical neurotransmitters that convey messages across synapses of the nervous system, facilitating communication between the gut and the brain. These neurotransmitters include serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Bacteria also produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and influence the learning process and memory in the brain.

In addition, microbes produce chemicals that travel through the bloodstream. The brain, in turn, can send messages that alter the environment of the gut microbiome. This is all part of a complex ecosystem that helps maintain human health.

Cells in the intestinal walls make up a whopping 70–80% of the body’s immune system.

Even so, microorganisms in the gut can sometimes have negative effects on health, and they play roles in various neurological, mental health, and gastrointestinal disorders, including some that have persistent symptoms but no other obvious physical cause. In some ways, researchers are still in the early stages of unravelling the various roles that the gut–brain axis plays in disease, but increasingly, disruptions to the microbiome are being linked to the prevalence of allergies, metabolic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and neuropsychiatric conditions. Research published in Nature suggests that the gut microbiome can influence depression, anxiety, mood disorders, neurodevelopmental differences such as autism, and possibly even serious psychological disorders like schizophrenia. Experiments with animal models suggest that probiotics that interact with the microbiome could play a future role in improving treatment for major depressive disorder.

How the Gut–Brain Axis Affects Health

The gut–brain axis coordinates closely with the immune system, which activates if the ENS detects injury or disease in the digestive tract. The digestive system plays an enormous role in our ability to fight off disease. The intestinal walls include gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), and together, these cells can be thought of as the largest immune organ in the body, as they make up a whopping 70–80% of the body’s immune system.

Besides its role in physical health, the gut can directly influence emotions on mental states. Gastrointestinal issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), constipation, diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, stomach upset, or other irritation in the digestive system appear to send signals to the brain that can cause mood changes. More research is needed to study this connection, but people who experience IBS or other bowel issues are statistically more likely to develop depression and anxiety. But because the gut–brain axis goes both ways, there’s also the potential for the brain to affect the digestive system. For example, chronic stress can cause an imbalance to the microbiome. Increased levels of cortisol in the bloodstream due to chronic stress can lead to an inflammatory response. This inflammation can affect the hippocampus, a part of the brain involved with learning, memory, and spatial navigation.

The gut–brain axis can influence many different medical and psychological conditions including neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson’s disease and nerve-related disorders like multiple sclerosis. Scientific studies continue to explore whether changes to the human gut microbiome can affect and improve disease symptoms or prevent the onset of brain disorders. In some cases, healthcare providers might prescribe probiotics, antibiotics, or a fecal transplant to alter the gut microbiome and improve patient health. Conversely, therapies intended to improve overall mood and stress levels, such as relaxation techniques, cognitive behavioral therapy, and biofeedback, can sometimes provide relief for gastrointestinal issues.

It probably comes as no surprise that the best way to maintain a healthy gut–brain axis is to follow a nutritious diet. You can improve digestive health by avoiding processed foods, which often have harmful additives, sweeteners, and saturated fats. A plant-rich whole food diet helps by providing digestion-friendly soluble and insoluble fiber, anti-inflammatory nutrients, and antioxidants. Additionally, eating food with probiotics and prebiotics can be good for gut health. Probiotics are the live bacteria found in yogurt and fermented foods, and prebiotics are the fibers and starches that probiotic bacteria consume.

Given how digestive health and brain health are so intertwined, we can expect that the gut–brain axis will be an increasingly studied aspect of research into the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of brain conditions.

Resources:

Cleveland Clinic – The Gut-Brain Connection

Johns Hopkins Medicine – The Brain-Gut Connection

Psych Scene Hub – The Simplified Guide to the Gut-Brain Axis

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to ensuring our health span is as long as our lifespan. With your help, we can enjoy not just longer lives, but healthier ones too. Donate today to help more people live longer, healthier lives.

When Connie visited the ER, the doctors dismissed her concerns as anxiety. It turned out she had a brain tumor that required immediate surgery. She was lucky to survive, but then she suddenly had to undergo emergency brain surgery a second time. Now she views supporting research as an important part of her healing.

In March, 2016, Connie was on a business trip in Texas, 1,400 miles from her home in Maryland. Unexpectedly, she started experiencing extreme nausea and spotty vision. At first, she thought she might be having a diabetic episode, because she’d experienced gestational diabetes while pregnant with her second child. But then she also started experiencing a pounding headache, and although she’d experienced migraines and recurring neck pain since childhood, she knew that this was something uniquely serious. She asked a co-worker to drive her to the ER.

Initially the doctor and ER staff dismissed her concerns as an anxiety attack, something she had never experienced before, and they tried to give her anti-anxiety medication. She refused, feeling certain that she wasn’t experiencing anxiety. They asked her some questions, but to her surprise, she was unable to state her own middle name. At that point, the doctor agreed to conduct a quick CT scan.

Connie recalls, “She came in, pulled the curtain, and said, ‘You have a growth in your brain, and we have to send you 30 minutes north to an emergency brain and spine facility.’” The doctor informed her that travel home would not be possible, and that the growth needed to be removed immediately. After making some phone calls to family members, Connie was placed onboard an ambulance to be taken to a special treatment facility in Plano.

There, she received emergency surgery to remove a spherical golf-ball-sized tumor at the base of her cerebellum. The tumor was pushing down on the cavities, called ventricles, that allow cerebrospinal fluid to circulate. Thankfully, the surgery was successful and the tumor turned out to be noncancerous. However, she later learned that these types of tumors often rupture, which is usually fatal.

About six days after Connie returned home to Maryland, she suddenly experienced the most excruciating headache she had ever felt. She thought she was having complications from the surgery and was going to die.  

“I ended up being taken to our shock trauma department where they had to put a temporary shunt in the front of my brain while I was awake,” she says. “I had all these students around me. I had signed the waiver, and the teaching neurosurgeon, he’s tapping on my head. I’m laying back like this, and he’s just tapping, telling the student, ‘Okay, this is where you have to drill.’ And I remember saying, ‘Wait a minute, you don’t have a Magic Marker or something that you can put on here?’ I remember a lot of laughter, but they ended up putting Magic Marker on my forehead.”

After the shunt had been in place for a few days, it was removed, also while she was awake, and she was able to continue her recovery. While she doesn’t know the exact reason she needed a second operation, she suspects that she might have been weaned off a steroid too quickly, and that the inflammation in her brain hadn’t receded enough to let the ventricles properly drain. 

Since her second operation, Connie has felt much better physically. While migraines usually aren’t caused by brain tumors, in her case, removing the tumor stopped those symptoms, and she no longer felt neck pains. But the kindness she received from so many others—whether they were people she knew in real life or followers online—inspired her to use her creative talents to spread positivity and hope. She started screen-printing, with her message Inhale Goodness, Exhale Kindness, and now she designs and sells T-shirts through her business Kindness Tree Movement as a part-time job. And for the last five years, she’s donated a portion of her proceeds to the American Brain Foundation.

She likes that the American Brain Foundation does work to support research into multiple brain diseases and disorders, because of the cumulative effect of research discoveries. “Once researchers find one correlation, I do believe that they’re going to find others, and it will end with cures,” she says. “What helps me is knowing that I’m giving a little bit toward that research.” 

Like many American Brain Foundation donors, she feels a personal calling to support brain research. “Part of my healing has been to try to give back, to make a difference, no matter how small,” she says. “Just being able to know that I’m making an impact in some way gives me purpose, and I think that purpose is often what helps us through each day.”  

Life without brain disease is a team effort, and Connie believes in the power of people coming together to help make that vision a reality for all. “We have to continue on with hope for the brilliant minds ahead and the research that is just around the corner.”

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to improving lives through research. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Due to brain injuries from cerebral hypoxia, Raj’s mother was mostly unresponsive for forty years, since the day Raj was born. This deprived her of the opportunity to know her mother the way she could have. But now that she’s a mother herself, Raj has found a new perspective and sees hope for others in the field of brain research.

On the night Raj was born, her mother suffered a tragedy. Raj’s mother needed an emergency C-section, but the anesthesiologist who fitted her mask failed to turn on the oxygen supply.

“Nobody knew, no alarms went off,” Raj says. “And then the OB saw the blood was not oxygenated and her heart was not beating. So they had to pull me away very quickly, and they didn’t even sew her back up. They started to revive her, and they resuscitated her. I believe it may have been close to 15 minutes.” This incident caused cerebral hypoxia, and her mother entered a coma for four years.

“She technically woke up. She would open her eyes, but she didn’t respond to many of the tests that they did for awareness. She responded a little bit to touch, and she had very slight movements, but she had severe brain damage from the lack of oxygen.” For the next 40 years, Raj’s mother lived in what was then called a vegetative state, now known as unresponsive wakefulness syndrome.

After about six years, Raj’s father moved her mother out of the hospital, and Raj became a secondary caregiver when she was about nine or ten. Together, they kept her mother fed on a liquid diet, including soup and a protein drink. Sometimes her mother experienced seizures, for which they had medication. Her mother seemed to have some level of awareness, but she could not communicate. She had been given a tracheostomy and would sometimes cough, and Raj would wonder if it was an attempt to talk.

“She never spoke, and her reactions were inconsistent. If you asked her to turn her head, sometimes she would and sometimes she wouldn’t, so it was hard to know whether it was intentional. Her movements were always very slight. I think she may have been able to hear, or at least sense vibrations, because if you touched her, she would cringe or turn.” Her mother would flinch if a door slammed, so Raj believes she could hear or feel something. But shining a flashlight in her eyes had no noticeable effect.

Raj’s parents hadn’t known each other before their arranged marriage in India, when they were in their twenties. Her father then returned to the States and submitted the immigration paperwork to allow her mother to come and live with him several months later. Two years after the wedding, Raj was born, and her mother would spend the next forty years in bed, mostly immobile and unresponsive. “When my dad and I used to fight or somebody was being mean to me in my house, I remember her being more agitated and coughing,” Raj says. “I think that was my mom standing up for me in her own way.”

Raj grew up and had children of her own, but eventually it was clear that her mother was dying. It was difficult for her to process this impending loss. “It was so hard for me to say goodbye because I feel like we never got to say hello.”

Over the years, Raj had researched possible treatments that could help her mother, but it always proved discouraging. Still, she wanted to do something. She decided she could put effort toward helping others who live with the effects of hypoxia or care for someone who does.

“I was so excited the day that I found the American Brain Foundation,” she says. “I was in a bad state. I was crying. I was upset. My mom was dying and it was my birthday. I used to hate my birthday because it was the day that this happened to my mom. But my life is still a gift from my mom. So I want to celebrate, and I want to feel better about it. So on my birthday, every year I find a place to donate.” When she came across the American Brain Foundation, she recognized an organization uniquely driven to empower research for all brain conditions. “This is exactly what I love. This is amazing. Someone doing the research to help people like my mom, and that’s why I started donating to this foundation.”

For years, Raj felt she couldn’t be happy because her mother couldn’t. But she finally came to realize that her own life is precious, and her mother would have wanted her to live it to the fullest. “I’m happier about my birthday right now. Yes, it’s horrible what happened to my mom, but she gave me my life, and it’s a gift, and I want to appreciate it and treat it as a gift.”

She recognizes that scientific research is the only way to find treatments and cures for brain conditions like hypoxia, and in that she feels a calling. “I feel like it’s up to us to carry on, to fund the research because the research can’t fund itself. I used to feel powerless when I looked at my mom trapped as a prisoner in her own body. Now I see that donors like us have the power to set people like her free.”

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to improving lives through research. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

If you graduated from high school a while ago, it’s understandable that you may have forgotten about some of the things you learned about the brain in science classes over the years. Whatever your age, it never hurts to review and refresh your knowledge. After all, learning should be a lifelong pursuit, and it helps to strengthen brain resilience as we age.

The human brain has several different regions and components. The three main regions are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem.

The cerebrum is the largest and most developed part of the brain. It’s involved with motor function, sensory processing, language and communication, learning and memory, and forming thoughts. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres, each of which has four subregions called lobes:

• The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions including self-control, reasoning, planning, and abstract thought.
• The parietal lobe processes the sense of touch, spatial awareness, and navigation, and it helps with math and reading or writing skills.
• The temporal lobe helps you process auditory sensations and interpret language. It also works together with other brain regions to create memories, recognize visual stimuli (including human faces), and process emotions.
• The occipital lobe is dedicated to vision, managing sight, color recognition, and depth perception.

The cerebellum is located on the rear underside of the brain. This region is responsible for motor coordination (combining multiple body movements to perform actions), some cognitive functions like attention and language, and emotional control of fear and pleasure responses.

The brainstem is the stalk-like region that connects the brain to the spinal cord. Located in front of the cerebellum, the brainstem includes subregions called the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The functions of the brainstem include regulating breathing and heart rates, managing the sleep cycle, and conveying signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

The brain and spinal cord represent the central nervous system, and all other nerves branching out throughout the body represent the peripheral nervous system.

The human brain contains about 86 billion neurons. These are nerve cells that have branches called dendrites, a cell body (containing the nucleus, mitochondria, and other components) called a soma, and a long tail called a nerve fiber, or an axon. Throughout the body’s entire nervous system, axons can vary in length from as little as a millimeter to more than a meter (such as those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spine all the way to the big toe). Neurons form multiple connections to other neurons—up to 1 quadrillion (1,000 trillion) connections!

Neurons send signals to one another by releasing electrically charged molecules called neurotransmitters, which travel from the terminals of axons across a gap called a synapse to be received by the dendrites of another neuron. The receiving neuron passes this message along the axon as an electrical signal. These signals have countless voluntary and involuntary functions; for example, engaging body movement, recognizing a sensation, regulating unconscious processes like metabolism, retrieving a memory, or performing any sort of action.

Nerve signals travel so quickly that they seem instantaneous to human perception. In fact, signals representing information in the brain travel at up to 350 miles per hour. How do they move so fast? That’s primarily due to a mechanism called saltatory conduction, which occurs with neurons that have a protective coating called myelin covering their axons. This is sort of like the insulation covering electrical wires, but the myelin coating is not continuous; rather, it’s separated into short sections called myelin sheaths. In between these sheaths are spaces known as the nodes of Ranvier. This structure allows signals to “jump” from one node to the next, which is 15 to 300 times faster than they can travel through unmyelinated axons.

Axons can vary in length from as little as

a millimeter to more than a meter.

Besides neurons, the brain also includes billions of glial cells, which don’t conduct electricity but instead provide supportive functions. Glial cells (or glia) hold neurons in place, insulate them from other neurons, supply them with oxygen and nutrients, heal injured brain tissue, and serve as immune cells for the central nervous system. If harmful molecules enter the brain, such as a toxic substance or pathogen, these glial cells will try to fight off these invasions—in the process causing neuroinflammation. This is a normal part of the healing process, but it can also contribute to brain diseases and disorders.

Sometimes glia can make mistakes and accidentally attack healthy neurons, mistaking them for infected ones. This type of misdirected autoimmune response is the cause of several brain diseases. For example, multiple sclerosis is the result of glia attacking mistakenly attacking and damaging the myelin sheaths of neuron axons. As this continues, the nerve fibers themselves become exposed and damaged. This then leads to symptoms of blurred or double vision, muscle weakness, tingling or numbness, fatigue, and difficulty with coordination and balance. Later symptoms can include pain, muscle stiffness, dizziness, speech problems, cognitive impairments, and potentially paralysis.

Depending on when you went to school, you may have been taught that, within the brain, glia outnumber neurons 10 to 1. The current understanding is that the numbers of glia and neurons are about the same, but the ratio between them differs by brain region.

When you see, hear, touch, smell, or taste something, signals are sent to your brain for you to interpret. Each of these senses are perceived in different ways and in different parts of the brain, but they each involve a process of transduction, or transforming received stimuli into electrical impulses.

In visual transduction, light enters the eyes and lands upon the retina, a layer of tissue inside each eyeball. The cornea (the transparent outer part of the eye covering the iris and pupil) and the lens act together as a compound lens, which inverts the image, turning it upside-down, before it’s projected onto our retinas. The retinas include rod- and cone-shaped photoreceptor cells. Rod cells function mostly in dim light and allow monochromatic vision, whereas cone cells function in well-lit conditions and enable color perception. There are three types of cones, each of which are sensitive to a different range of electromagnetic frequency, or the wavelength of light. These wavelengths correspond to the different colors we can see. The photoreceptor cells transmit charged molecules that are converted to an electrical signal that travels through the optic nerve from the eye to the brain, specifically the visual cortex, on the outer surface of the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.

Sound waves are converted to nerve signals through a series of physical structures. They enter the ear canals and cause the ear drums to vibrate, which causes small bones to move tiny hair-like fibers in the inner ear, and receptor cells detect these motions. The receptor cells convert the motions into electrical signals, which travel through nerves to the auditory cortex, located in the cerebrum’s temporal lobe.

The sensation of touch involves activation of receptor neurons primarily located in the skin. These sensory neurons detect pressure, vibration, temperature, light touch, itch, tickle, and pain, and convert these feelings into signals that travel through nerves to the brain. Sensations from a person’s face or head are transmitted through cranial nerves, which emerge directly from the brain, while sensations felt elsewhere in the body travel through the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord, and then into the brain. These signals are processed in the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe of the cerebrum.

Noticing smells is a process of odor molecules interacting to varying degrees with hundreds of different receptor cells in the nasal cavity. When molecules that have a scent or odor are inhaled through the nose, they dissolve in the mucus lining the nasal cavity and bind with proteins for transport to cilia, or tiny hairs, attached to neurons. The neurons convert this chemical interaction into an electrical signal that gets transmitted to a structure called the olfactory bulb, which in turn sends signals to the amygdala and the hippocampus in the temporal lobe and the prefrontal cortex, the front part of the frontal lobe.

We perceive taste when chemicals in foods or other substances interact with the taste buds located on the tongue and other parts of the inner mouth and throat. Taste buds are clusters of receptor cells that detect five different types of taste: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savoriness). When these receptor cells encounter varying levels of these chemicals, they release neurotransmitter molecules. These molecules activate further sensory neurons, which send a signal to a brain structure called the thalamus. The thalamus is sort of a signal relay station, and it sends impulses relating to taste to the gustatory cortex in the frontal lobe, where the sensation is perceived.

Several types of brain conditions can impair the senses. For example, people who experience Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease can lose some of their hearing or their ability to detect scents. Sometimes severe strokes can cause internal brain damage that can lead to blindness.

Sure, we use our brains to think and learn and do all sorts of conscious activities. But the brain is also responsible for countless involuntary tasks. These include regulating breathing, heartbeat and blood circulation, metabolism, body temperature and sweating, the immune response, digestion, hormone changes, sexual arousal, and sleep cycles. The brain controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which includes the peripheral nerves that connect to most internal organs. The ANS has three divisions:

• Sympathetic nervous system. This activates the body’s “fight-or-flight” response, to help you survive in times of perceived danger. A part of the brain called the hypothalamus sends a signal to the adrenal glands to release the hormone adrenaline. This causes your heart beats faster so that the blood delivers more oxygen to other parts of your body, your airways open to take in more oxygen, your pupils open to let in more light, the body uses energy stored in the liver, and digestion slows down so that energy can be used elsewhere. If danger persists, hypothalamus triggers a sequence of events that cause the adrenal glands to release cortisol, which helps the body stay on high alert.
• Parasympathetic nervous system. Conversely, this system helps the body calm down from a state of high alert or stress and return to a “rest and digest” state called homeostasis. Your brain senses that danger has passed and it triggers the nerve cells to release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which slows down functions like heart rate and breathing.
• Enteric nervous system. This system includes about 500 million neurons in the gastrointestinal tract, over five times more than in the entire spinal cord. These neurons help control (a) the contraction and relaxation of muscles to move food through digestive system and (b) the release of digestive enzymes. Microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract release chemicals that can communicate with the enteric nervous system and potentially influence brain development. This connection between the digestive and nervous systems is referred to as the gut–brain axis.

In high school science class, you may have been required to participate in animal brain dissection. While the merits of this practice continue to be debated, such projects clearly demonstrate that other species have brains that are both similar and different to our own.

All mammals have a six-layered cerebral cortex and some common structures, such as the hippocampus and amygdala. But humans evolved to have a proportionally larger cerebral cortex than those of other animals, including other primates, and fossil evidence of human evolution shows a significant increase in brain size from our hominid ancestors four million years ago. Compared to other animals, our brains are much larger in proportion to our body size.

The science journal Nature created an immersive article on what makes the human brain unique. In addition to differences in brain size, humans have different proportions of cell types. For example, a recent study found that humans have five times more glial support cells than mice, and we also have a lot more connections between neurons. Human brains develop more slowly, taking about 30 years to fully develop. This could have an evolutionary benefit, in that it allows the brain more time to be shaped by its environment, grow more neurons, and develop complex connections between them. The slower brain development could be due to genetic factors, such as a gene duplication that exists only in humans.

But not everything that’s unique about the human brain is an advantage. One downside is that, because of our long lifespans, we experience more shrinkage of the cerebral cortex and other negative effects as we age.

Brain research continues to illuminate more and more about this incredible organ. Keeping research funded will make it possible for scientists to discover ways to protect the people from the neurodegenerative effects of aging and disease.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to ensuring our health span is as long as our lifespan. With your help, we can enjoy not just longer lives, but healthier ones too. Donate today to help more people live longer, healthier lives.

Many brain diseases and disorders are caused or influenced by genetics. Genetic tests can confirm that individuals have a high risk of developing a serious brain condition, but until recently little could be done about it. However, research has led to therapies that can slow down or even prevent symptoms of these illnesses, and scientists are increasingly focused on developing preventative genetic treatments.

Many diseases and disorders occur because of external causes, such as an infection, injury, or exposure to harmful conditions. Others occur because of issues coded into a person’s genes, the segments of DNA that produce proteins and record hereditary traits. Sometimes gene sequences can feature an irregularity called a mutation, and these gene variants can be passed down from parents to their children, generation after generation. Specific, identifiable gene variants can directly cause diseases, including brain diseases, or significantly increase the risk of developing a disease later in life.

When diseases are not genetically inherited, they are said to be environmental, which simply means that there’s some sort of external cause, such as injury, infection, smoking, physical inactivity, diabetes, or exposure to air pollution or other toxins. So, which is more prevalent, inherited brain diseases or environmental brain diseases?

Some conditions (like muscular dystrophy) have only a genetic cause and others (like concussion) have only an environmental cause. However, it’s also possible for a single condition to have multiple possible causes. For example, diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson’s disease can be caused exposure to environmental toxins, but they can also be inherited from parents with a genetic history of those conditions.

A 2025 study analyzed health data from more than 12,000 extended families to better understand how their genes and shared environmental exposures to things like air pollution and pesticides influence the risk of nine brain diseases. The study included statistics for Alzheimer’s disease, ALS, frontotemporal dementia (FTD), vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia (LBD), ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, Parkinson’s, and multiple sclerosis among this population.

Results of the study, which admittedly only included Dutch participants, show that genetics accounted for over 72% of the risk for both Alzheimer’s and ALS. Even for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, the conditions most strongly influenced by environmental factors, genetics contributed more to disease risk. The study underscores the prevalence of genetic factors that cause brain disease. It also makes clear the need for continued focus on genetics research, so that scientists can identify the genes that contribute to disease risk and develop new therapies to treat or prevent those conditions.

Genomics is the scientific field focused on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. This field plays a crucial role in helping researchers understand, detect, treat, and potentially prevent brain diseases that are genetically inherited or have a genetic component. Clinicians can analyze the DNA of parents, a developing feus, newborns, or children for early identification of genetic risks and recommend strategies to prevent those conditions or reduce the severity of symptoms as a child grows up. While researchers are still in the early days of developing some of these therapies, genomics is one of the most precise ways to identify brain disease risk long before symptoms begin.

Understanding genetic abnormalities can lead to the development of treatments that prevent or slow serious diseases. For example, in an Australian study, researchers discovered that brains affected by Parkinson’s disease showed evidence of faulty SOD1 proteins. These proteins are encoded by the gene SOD1, and normally they help protect the brain. However, if there’s a problem with the gene, the proteins become misfolded and form into clumps that ultimately destroy brain cells. The scientists, who were working with mice that had been bred with Parkinson’s-like symptoms, discovered that targeting the faulty SOD1 proteins with a copper supplement prevented the mice from developing issues with motor function. This is an example of how genetic insight led to a treatment that, when administered as an early intervention, prevented symptoms of a brain disease, at least in mice. It’s possible to test humans for genetic mutations to SOD1, as well as variants of the genes LRRK2, GBA, and PRKN, which also increase Parkinson’s risk.

While misfolded SOD1 proteins contribute to cell death in Parkinson’s, mutations of the SOD1 gene are more directly related to a rare genetic variant of ALS. This has led to the development of tofersen (Qalsody), a medication to treat those ALS patients who carry the SOD1 mutation.

Advancements in technology have made it possible to review genetic tests and detect genetic biomarkers, or biological indicators, of disease risk decades before clinical symptoms appear. Researchers can use whole genome sequencing to capture a person’s complete DNA sequence all at once. Then, they can use machine learning—which harnesses the power of artificial intelligence to run statistical algorithms—which can analyze massive amounts of data and draw conclusions from it. It’s now possible to make fairly accurate predictions about whether a person will develop Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, or ALS based on analyzed genetic data.

But any type of disease with a genetic component can be detected this way, and researchers are hard at work on treatments. Dr. Caghan Kizil, a recipient of a recent American Brain Foundation Cure One, Cure Many Catalyst Award in Neuroinflammation, is studying how a rare variant of the gene FN1 can help people who have the gene variant APOE-ε4, which is the strongest genetic risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s. His team is developing a precision therapy based on this research.

Using genomics to predict the risk of future diseases makes it possible for professionals and healthcare systems to intervene and administer treatments before the irreversible effects of neurodegenerative diseases. This approach has the potential to shift brain health strategies from reactive treatments to proactive protection.

If genetic abnormalities are detected early in life through genetic testing, what can people do about it? Until recently, there wasn’t much that could be done. Fortunately, scientists have discovered ways to alter genes, and this research is accelerating. Last January, we discussed gene therapy as a treatment for a small number of brain diseases, such as spinal muscular atrophy, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and the SOD1 variant of ALS. Currently, gene therapy treatments are very expensive, they have strict eligibility requirements, and they can carry a significant degree of risk. The journal Trends in Molecular Medicine published an article in September reviewing the state of gene therapies for neurogenetic disorders. It notes that researchers have discovered more than 1,700 genes with variants that can cause these disorders. The authors highlight the need to improve regulatory and commercial pathways to speed up the translation from research discovery to practical treatments, and to reduce the time and cost of gene therapy development.

Fortunately, scientists are working diligently to improve genetic treatments and expand these solutions to other conditions, and patient-led disease foundations have been supporting translational research. National Public Radio recently reported on the Brain Health accelerator, a $400 million project launched by the Allen Institute in Seattle to develop new genetic therapies. The project is an offshoot of the Brain Research through Innovative Neurotechnologies® (BRAIN) Initiative, launched in 2013 as a public-private partnership between the National Institutes of Health, the Allen Institute and other private funders, and hospitals, universities, and research centers all over the world.

The Brain Health accelerator program involves hundreds of researchers who are working on both “traditional” gene therapy (delivering healthy genes or targeting harmful ones) and gene editing (precisely changing DNA sequences). Their teams are focusing on inherited conditions including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, ALS, Lewy body dementia, and Huntington’s disease.

Besides rapidly evolving genetic treatments, there are a few things that people who are genetically predisposed to a brain condition can do to lower their risk or reduce the severity of symptoms later in life. For example, researchers have found individuals with the APOE-ε4 gene variant can lower their risk of developing dementia by making several healthy lifestyle changes:

• Adhering to the Mediterranean diet and consuming omega-3 fatty acids
• Limiting or abstaining from alcohol consumption
• Getting regular high-intensity exercise
• Maintaining healthy blood pressure and cholesterol levels
• Exercising the mind (e.g., through lifelong learning, reading, and writing, or practicing foreign languages or a musical instrument)
• Getting good quality sleep

Along with avoiding tobacco use, these behaviors have been shown to make a significant difference for preventing many different conditions, including neurological and cardiovascular diseases.

Emerging research suggests that even people with the APOE-ε4 gene variant can maintain exceptional brain health well into older age. This highlights that genes are only one part of the story and cannot predict on their own whether someone will develop Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of cognitive decline.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to advancing our understanding of the brain. With your help, researchers can discover and develop solutions for genetic brain conditions. Donate today to help more people live longer, healthier lives.

In an era when everyone is connected to online news and social media through smart phones, doomscrolling—or continuously absorbing distressing information—may seem unavoidable. However, exposure to constant negative stimuli can negatively affect your mental health. Fortunately, setting boundaries on media consumption can help you balance the need to stay informed with the need for reasonable and appropriate self-care.

If you regularly read or view content about disturbing current events, especially online, it’s natural to feel emotionally overwhelmed. Whether you’re consuming stories and perspectives on disease, natural disasters, political upheaval, or any other issue that increases your sense of anger or fear, your brain is being forced to deal with a great deal of stress.

Coined in 2018, doomscrolling describes the overconsumption of negative short-form content or news, especially on social media platforms that have an infinitely populating feed of new posts. The term became ubiquitous during the COVID-19 pandemic, when people were isolating at home and following the news online, but it remains relevant in the worldwide vernacular. Even though the lockdowns have long passed, scrolling through headlines on smart phone apps can still feel like a relentless barrage of tragedy and suffering, or outright rage bait. The experience can leave you feeling hopeless, helpless, cynical, or apathetic.

Smart phones allow you to take the news cycle with you everywhere and access it at any time, and social media platforms lend themselves perfectly to doomscrolling. Their endless and constantly repopulating feeds keep you reading or viewing post after post, satisfying a craving for novelty and danger. Then, their algorithms learn what types of content you interact with and serve up similar stories, causing even more psychological stress. These factors affect your behavior, and consumption becomes compulsion. While any addictive behavior is concerning, doomscrolling also has a cumulative negative effect on well-being.

It’s important to recognize that the problem is not your impulse to know more about the world around you. Having the curiosity to learn about current events improves your understanding of the world, helps build empathy, and can compel you to take positive actions. You should not judge yourself negatively for indulging your curiosity, nor for feeling the need to take a break from what you may feel is a responsibility to stay informed.

But obsessively reading negative news can become harmful. It’s a lot for your brain to process, and it can lead to emotional burnout, social disconnection, and despair. The key is recognizing how continually scrolling through negative news content makes you feel overwhelmed, anxious, angry, or heartbroken—and remembering that it’s okay to set limits on viewing digital content.

When a person experiences a stimulus that causes stress, it activates the brain’s limbic system, which is dominated by a structure called the amygdala. Among other functions, the amygdala serves to protect the individual from danger by sending signals to another brain structure, the hypothalamus, which acts as the command center to regulate bodily functions. When the amygdala signals danger, the hypothalamus tells the sympathetic nervous system to activate a powerful fight-or-flight response. This in turn causes the body’s adrenal glands to release stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, which sharpen senses and prepare muscles for quick action. This function was critical to human survival and evolution, and it still serves to jolt people into behavior focused on self-preservation.

However, repeated activation of the stress response takes a toll on the body. It contributes to high blood pressure, increases the risk of developing deposits in the bloodstream that can clog arteries, and causes changes to the brain that impair cognitive abilities like concentration, decision-making, and emotional regulation. Under normal circumstances, once a stressful situation has concluded, the hypothalamus activates the parasympathetic nervous system to calm down the body, so it can go from fight or flight to “rest and digest.” Continuously engaging with negative news repeatedly engages this stress response and doesn’t give the body the chance to calm down.

For example, you might see an alarming social media post that threatens your sense of safety, security, or well-being. This concern for safety immediately puts you into a state of hypervigilance, and you may feel a need to keep scrolling to learn more. As you scroll, you encounter other related or unrelated negative news that provokes additional stress.

News media has long exploited the human stress response for the sake of grabbing and holding audience attention. If audiences are alarmed by negative news, they are likely to keep reading, viewing, and listening in hopes of a reassuring resolution, or at least some details on how to ensure their safety. This behavior is driven by anxiety—the body’s emotional response to stress and potential threats. Some people, especially those who have experienced violence or other trauma in the past, often doomscroll to try to find information that can calm their anxiety, but in the process, they sometimes find further stories that only increase their symptoms.

Doomscrolling presents mental health risks. It reinforces negative thoughts and feelings, causes significant irritability, increases anxiety and depression, and can cause panic attacks. It also leads to mental fatigue, impaired concentration, and reduced productivity, all of which can further decrease one’s sense of well-being. Studies also show that the more time people spend doomscrolling negative social media content, the more likely they are to have feelings of distress, lower self-esteem, and problems sleeping.

It can also affect the body in other ways. Stress can lead to nausea, headaches, muscle tension, neck and shoulder pain, decreased or increased appetite, and difficulty sleeping. Staring at computer or phone screens for long periods of time also tends to be an indoor sedentary activity, which deprives the body of needed physical exercise and sunlight. It also can lead to sleep procrastination, if you frequently stay up long past your bedtime, and this loss of healthy sleep affects your mood and energy levels the next day. Doomscrolling also worsens social health, as it takes time away from in-person interaction with friends and family.

Remember, doomscrolling is not just an activity, it’s a compulsive habit that negatively affects your mental and physical health. Prioritizing your own health does not make you an irresponsible citizen. Yes, you should make a concerted effort to stay informed about current events, so you can navigate a complex and ever-changing world. But spending hours at a time exposing yourself to content that causes you anxiety hurts more than it helps. The solution is not to “bury your head in the sand” or completely ignore the events that occur in the world at large. Rather, it’s to set reasonable digital media boundaries for yourself, so that your brain and body can return to a normal, unstressed state.

With some focused effort, it’s possible to break a doomscrolling habit and regain a balance, so that you can take in some news information (which might be distressing) and support your personal well-being. You can start recalibrating by being mindful of how much time you currently spend doomscrolling. To set boundaries, it might be helpful to think of the problem as an issue of time management. For example, you could establish a rule for yourself that you can read the news or scroll TikTok, but give yourself a time limit. Can you get sufficient news updates by limiting your social media time to an hour a day? What about half an hour? Then stop, and do another activity that you find fulfilling, such as a hobby, yardwork, or exercise.

It may help to ask yourself the following questions:

As a mindfulness exercise, take a moment to think about how you feel when you eventually stop scrolling. Do you tend to feel better or worse than when you started? As you’re scrolling, pause every 5 to 10 minutes to check in on your mood. If you discover that you feel worse with each check in, that’s a sign that your social media habits may be causing you too much stress.

Sometimes you might need to remind yourself that most things that happen are completely out of your control. Journaling about your feelings or channeling them into a creative project can help you process your thoughts and regulate your emotions. Sometimes, you can help others affected by tragic circumstances on a micro level through some small act of kindness or donating to charity. But often, there’s simply nothing that anyone can do, and it’s important to recognize this and have compassion for yourself as well.

When you doomscroll, you might encounter one bit of alarming news and find yourself searching for more details about it, to the point where you spend hours collecting far more information than you need to make informed decisions. This can lead you to feel helpless and frustrated, which doesn’t benefit you in any way. So, when you read or hear about a distressing event or development, take a moment to consider how much more you need to know about it. If you find you need more details immediately to feel safe, or if you think the claims are suspicious, feel free to investigate it a little further. But try to keep in mind that if you’re not directly affected, you can also read more about the incident later, on another day.

How is this habit affecting your sleep, mood, work, relationships, and physical health? Try to look at the issue objectively and consider how else you might want to spend your time.

If you’ve considered these questions, and you think your media consumption habits are consistent with doomscrolling, here are some suggestions to break the habit:

• Prune your news feed. Unfollow or mute accounts that consistently post negative content.
• Turn off notifications from apps. Each time you receive a notification about a new headline or message, whether through a sound or a message that lights up the screen, your attention is immediately drawn back to your phone. Reserve these notifications for emergencies and communications from real people you know.
• Set a time limit. Decide on a reasonable limit for how much time you spend looking at social media per day. For example, no more than 15 to 20 minutes, twice a day. Set a timer for this or use a productivity app that monitors how much time you spend on other apps and restricts access to them after a set time limit.
• Keep your phone out of easy reach during work. If there’s a safe place to put your phone that’s 10 or more feet away from where you’re working, or out of sight, such as in a desk drawer, placing the phone here can help you avoid scrolling during working hours.
• Keep your phone off your nightstand. While you might still want to have the phone in your bedroom, keeping it out of reach prevents you from grabbing it and looking at the news as soon as you wake up.
• Don’t have your phone with you at dinner. Set your phone to silent mode and keep it more than an arm’s length away during mealtime.
• Set your phone screen to grayscale. Some people have found that reducing the amount of color in the phone’s display helps make scrolling less enticing.
• Focus more on local news. In most communities, headlines for local news stories tend to be less distressing than national and international news. Shifting the balance of your news consumption to incorporate more local coverage could help offset the effects of reading more troubling stories affecting larger populations.
• Set boundaries with others. If you have friends, family members, or colleagues who regularly share depressing or disturbing news stories, it’s okay to ask these individuals not to share them with you. This is not rude; it’s simply a request to respect your preferences.
• Replace scrolling with other activities. Consider diverting time from doomscrolling to other activities such as reading books, listening to music, or spending time with friends—all of which can provide positive distractions and reduce anxiety. Going on a nature hike can be a great way to clear your head, with additional benefits for your physical health.
• Do something positive. Consider offsetting the deluge of negative headlines by engaging in activities that give you positive feelings. You might focus on altruistic efforts, such as volunteering with a charity organization, or you could sign up for a community education class to learn a new hobby.
• Talk to a professional. If you all else fails, and you find you can’t stop doomscrolling, or that it causes you extreme distress, it’s appropriate to discuss the issue with a doctor or therapist. Doomscrolling is essentially a form of internet addiction, and for a small percentage of people, it can be a serious problem. If the habit is too difficult to break on your own, it’s nothing to be ashamed of, and a doctor may be able to help or refer you to a specialist who can work with you to overcome the issue.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to advancing our understanding of the brain. With your help, we can make sure our healthspan lasts as long as our lifespan. Donate today to help more people live longer, healthier lives.

Amplified by climate change, hot summer temperatures can have negative effects on your body, mental health, and physical brain. It can also make pre-existing brain conditions worse. With heat waves soaring throughout the world, it’s important to understand the impact hot weather can have on brain health and protect yourself accordingly.

Jump to: The Psychological Effects of Heat | Physical Effects on the Brain | Effects on Brain Conditions | Tips to Protect Yourself from the Effects of High Temperatures

When temperatures rise above a comfortable level, your body and brain have to work hard to cool down, and this effort depletes the energy you have left for other things, including mental tasks. Heat waves have numerous effects on the brain, both psychologically and physically.

The most immediate forms of danger from excessive heat are heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body loses too much water and salt through perspiration, and the condition is identified with symptoms of dizziness, a rapid pulse, and clammy skin. If heat exhaustion goes untreated, it can progress rapidly to heat stroke. This occurs when the body’s cooling system breaks down completely, leading to a rise in internal body temperature, an effect known as hyperthermia. Heat stroke is an extremely serious condition. A 2022 review found that it can be fatal for nearly two-thirds of people who experience it during a heat wave, and some of those who do survive experience persistent brain damage.

A study in Shanghai found that raising the temperature in an office led to a measurable decrease in test scores for tasks such as typing and basic arithmetic.

The crisis of climate change affects the entire world population, but rising temperatures disproportionately affect older adults, young people, and people with fewer financial resources. The effects on the already vulnerable can quickly escalate to an emergency. For example, people who live in areas without access to air conditioning, or the power necessary to keep it running, are much more likely to experience heat stroke or worsening symptoms of brain or cardiovascular conditions during a heat wave. Unhoused individuals who may lack basic shelter from the sun and who have a statistically higher rate of mental health diagnoses face an especially high risk.

Additionally, increasing temperatures cause other problems that indirectly affect brain health. For example, heat causes drought and wildfires, which pollute the air with smoke. Breathing in smoky air can lead to mood changes, depression, anxiety, and problems related to cognition.

Excessively hot weather impairs your ability to think, make decisions, and stay calm. It causes symptoms like brain fog, confusion, fatigue, memory challenges, and difficulty concentrating. It can lead to impulsivity and increased risk-taking behavior. And it has effects on emotions, including irritability, depression, anxiety, and stress.

Numerous studies have measured the effects of high temperatures on cognitive performance. A study in Shanghai found that raising the temperature in an office led to a measurable decrease in test scores for tasks such as typing and basic arithmetic. An American study of college students found that in addition to receiving lower scores on tests, students who slept in dorms that had higher nighttime temperatures of 80°F also had slower response times compared to students in climate-controlled dorms with temperatures set at 71°F.

Although the brain makes up only about 2% of the body’s weight, it uses about 20% of its energy.

High temperatures most consistently affect cognitive functions such as sustained attention, working memory (remembering short pieces of information or procedures), response control (resisting urges like checking your phone), and decision-making. These symptoms are in part a result of the brain being occupied with maintaining body temperature, and in part by other issues.

High temperatures naturally make it harder to sleep. Trying to sleep in a hot environment is uncomfortable, and the brain requires a drop in core body temperature for deep restorative sleep. As a heat wave stretches on and people sleep poorly, this causes a sleep deficit, which leads to brain fog. An Australian study based in Indonesia found that nights exceeding 77°F led people to have more irrational and impulsive behavior and even make bad economic decisions. Older adults are especially vulnerable to the effects of reduced sleep quality, which can lead to challenges with memory and spatial orientation. Young people are vulnerable as well, because their brains are still developing.

Emotionally, the frustrations people experience during a heat wave can lead to anxiety and depression. There is even a version of seasonal affective disorder (or SAD, appropriately) for the hot summer months. The winter pattern of SAD is far more common and thought to be related to reduced daylight hours. This leads to depression from reduced serotonin levels, along with symptoms of weight gain, food cravings, and excessive sleep. By contrast, summer-pattern SAD is thought to be related to heat and humidity. It causes depression as well, but the other symptoms are different: these include reduced melatonin levels, weight loss, loss of appetite, and insomnia.

On average, the human brain is usually no more than 1.8°F higher than the body’s core temperature. However, the processes of thinking, remembering, and responding to our environment all require energy, and these efforts produce additional heat. That means that the body has to work hard to keep the brain cool, which it does by circulating blood to whisk away excess heat. This internal mechanism to cool the brain is necessary because brain cells are very sensitive to heat. Additionally, the neurotransmitters that pass signals from one cell to another can stop working efficiently if the brain gets too hot. Many of the neurotransmitters involved in regulating body temperature, like norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, are also involved in regulating mood, so it’s possible that this may be one reason why heat causes depression.

Although the brain makes up only about 2% of the body’s weight, it uses about 20% of its energy. So, if that energy is needed elsewhere, there’s less available for the brain. Heat causes the body to shift into survival mode. It responds to increases in core temperature by redirecting blood flow toward the skin to help dissipate heat. Unfortunately, this means less blood, glucose, and oxygen reach the brain. The result of this loss of resources can have noticeable effects, like sluggishness, difficulty with concentration, and irritability.

A study from Brazil found that as temperatures rise, the risk of epilepsy-related hospitalization also increases.

When we sweat, the body is trying to cool itself down. But sweating causes the body to lose water, leading to dehydration. This water needs to be replaced for proper brain functioning. Drinking water when your body is hot helps to deliver necessary oxygen and nutrients to the brain. People who have existing conditions that affect perspiration are more vulnerable to the effects of heat.

Exposure to high temperatures also raises cortisone levels, which induces a stress response. If the heat exposure is sustained over a long period of time, the body will produce a continual low-grade stress response.

Extended heat exposure can also increase inflammation and oxidative stress in the body, both of which can contribute to cognitive decline. Further research is needed to understand these effects over the long term, but one recent study found that heat stress caused the brain to activate its support cells to release inflammatory substances. This inflammation can damage neurons and prevent new neurons from forming, which negatively affects memory.

If these risks weren’t enough, prolonged and repeated heat exposure can affect cognitive function in other ways. For example, heat exhaustion and heat stroke can increase a person’s risk of cardiovascular diseases, which can lead to restricted blood flow to the brain, strokes, and neurodegeneration. High temperatures even have the potential to damage the blood–brain barrier, a layer that protects the brain from harmful molecules in the bloodstream. If this layer breaks down, the brain is more vulnerable to infection, and foreign proteins could more easily accumulate, causing inflammation and permanent loss of neurons.

Rising temperatures and humidity can exacerbate brain conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, encephalitis, migraine, stroke, multiple sclerosis, and others. The heat can be especially difficult for people with epilepsy, and it can cause seizures to become more prominent and frequent.

Exposure to high temperatures can make pre-existing mental health symptoms worse. For example, the symptoms of anxiety and stress-related disorders, mood disorders, childhood behavioral disorders, conditions that lead to self-harming behavior, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders. This can be seen in an increase in mortality rates, especially for people who live with substance use disorders.

People with epilepsy may be especially vulnerable during periods of extreme heat. The World Health Organization notes that 80% of people with epilepsy live in low- and middle-income countries, many of which are in the areas of the globe experiencing the highest temperatures. As the world is getting hotter, the heat-related complications of epilepsy are affecting more people. A study from Brazil found that as temperatures rise, the risk of epilepsy-related hospitalization also increases. High temperatures can lower the brain’s resistance to seizures, put stress on the body, and increase inflammation. They can also cause fatigue, lack of sleep, and fevers, all common seizure triggers. Women with epilepsy are at higher risk for heat-induced seizures, especially during the hormonal shifts of their menstrual cycle.

There is also some correlation between heatwaves and hospital admissions and mortality rates among people with dementia. With age, people are less able to regulate their body temperature, but cognitive impairment may also make it more difficult to adapt behaviors to extreme heat. For example, they might go outside when temperatures are too high, forget to close windows, or fail to drink enough water.

Nearly all medications designed to alter brain chemistry to treat mood, behavior, or perception, except benzodiazepines, can impair the body’s ability to tolerate hot weather conditions. Still, many patients are not specifically warned about this side effect. Certain antipsychotic medications can affect the body’s temperature regulation. These changes can put individuals at a higher degree of risk for heatstroke and heat-related death. This risk can also be a concern for people who live with some forms of MS, which can cause changes in core body temperature.

Of the seven million deaths that occur each year from strokes, heat could be contributing to more than 10,000 additional deaths, with that number growing with worsening climate change. Furthermore, increasing temperatures and milder winters extend the breeding season for mosquitos, which transmit viruses, including those that cause diseases that affect the brain, such as Zika, chikungunya, and dengue.

The body has some mechanisms to help us acclimate to extreme heat conditions after several days. For example, over time, you may begin to sweat sooner and have increased blood flow to the skin to carry heat away from your body’s core. But high temperature conditions are dangerous immediately, and even brief heat waves can cause medical emergencies. Climate change will continue to accelerate, and temperatures will keep rising, causing serious health risks worldwide. The following are some recommendations to help you endure the heat and protect your brain.

1. Stay Hydrated

It may sound obvious, but one of the most important ways to stay cool is to drink plenty of water, especially if you are spending time outdoors. It’s also vital to maintain optimal brain function. Dehydration leads to low blood pressure, which means less oxygen gets to the brain. Sweating depletes more moisture than many people realize, so you should plan to drink a lot of water. However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention cautions not to drink more than 48 oz. per hour, because this can lower the concentration of salt in the blood, potentially causing a medical emergency. Avoid caffeinated drinks, and especially energy drinks, which can be dangerous when your body is already under stress from the heat. Also avoid drinking alcohol, which can cause dehydration and puts you at greater risk for heat illness.

If you’re feeling thirsty in the heat, this is a sign that dehydration has already begun. Even small losses of your body’s internal water can affect your memory, mood, and concentration. It’s best to drink water before you feel thirsty, especially if you are planning to spend time in hot outdoor conditions. It’s better to sip small amounts of water throughout the day rather than drink a large amount all at once. Replacing electrolytes is also beneficial. These are charged minerals (like salt) that help regulate pH and fluid balance.

2. Get Quality Sleep

Getting good sleep is always important for brain health, but it’s especially vital during hot weather conditions. Because both heat and sleep deprivation impair brain function, their combined effects can be particularly harmful. Plus, hot weather can be uncomfortable and make sleep difficult, so adjustments may need to be made to help improve your rest. Even if you don’t have the luxury of air conditioning, try to make your sleeping area cool, with good ventilation and light bedding so that you can sleep comfortably. Sleep allows your brain to restore itself, sort memories, clear out waste proteins, and regulate your immune system. If these processes are cut short, it can negatively affect concentration, working memory, and decision-making the next day.

3. Restructure Your Day and Work Safely

While it’s not possible for everyone to adjust their work schedules, you should take precautions if you’re required to work outdoors during a heat wave. Be aware of the symptoms of heat exhaustion and have fluids readily available for rehydration. Press cool, damp cloth against your skin to help you lower your body temperature. Take frequent breaks to rest, wear loose, light-colored clothing, and whenever possible, work in the shade to avoid direct sun exposure. If you notice someone else exhibiting the signs of heat stroke, immediately call for medical help. Discussing heat safety with your team and establishing safety protocols is in everyone’s best interest. Avoid scheduling strenuous tasks during the hottest times of the day.

If your daily routine requires cognitively challenging tasks and making important decisions, it’s best to schedule these activities during the cooler morning hours, if possible, as opposed to the middle of the afternoon.

4. Find an Indoor Space to Cool Off

Increasingly, urban areas are establishing cooling centers—places with air conditioning for people to gather and escape extreme heat conditions. These facilities are gradually becoming more common in temperate zones, as summer heat waves are increasing in frequency and severity. But even if your city doesn’t have these resources, you may have access to other climate-controlled public spaces, such as libraries and community centers. As a local resident, you can voice your support for more investment in infrastructure projects like cooling centers and public swimming pools, which are desperately needed throughout the country, and especially in lower-income communities.

5. Slow Down and Take It Easy

Listen to the signals your body and brain are telling you. If you’re feeling too hot, acknowledge this fact and take care of yourself. Heat wave conditions are severe, and stepping back from strenuous activities is not a matter of laziness, it’s a survival necessity. Don’t try to push through in the blazing sun just for the sake of appreciating hot weather.

High temperatures may be the new normal, but by being informed of the dangers or excess heat, we can help protect ourselves, our brains, and each other.

 

References

Aubrey, Allison. “Yes, heat can affect your brain and mood. Here’s why.” Health Shots. July 31, 2023. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/07/31/1190627995/heat-wave-brain-mood-anxiety  

Jain, Sanket. “How rising temperatures affect the human brain.” Chemical & Engineering News. March 19, 2025. https://cen.acs.org/biological-chemistry/neuroscience/The-heat-trap/103/i8  

Lüthi, Theres. “The world is getting hotter – this is what it is doing to our brains.” BBC. August 1, 2025. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20250731-how-heatwaves-affect-our-brains  

Pappas, Stephanie. “How heat affects the mind.” Monitor on Psychology 55, no. 4 (2024). American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2024/06/heat-affects-mental-health 

Scott, Ellen. “Neuroscientists on how hot weather affects your brain.” Good Housekeeping. June 23, 2026. https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/uk/lifestyle/a71677138/why-how-hot-weather-affects-brain-function-neuroscientists-heatwave-tips/  

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease. Donate today to make a difference.

Selma Blair is an iconic actress, author, and advocate whose impact spans film, television, fashion, and activism. In 2018, she publicly shared her diagnosis with relapsing multiple sclerosis or RMS, becoming a fearless voice for disability awareness. In 2026, she became the American Brain Foundation’s Global Ambassador and National Chair for Brain Health Advancement. 

Recognized around the world for her major roles in Hollywood films, including Cruel Intentions, Legally Blonde, The Sweetest Thing, and the Hellboy  franchise, Selma Blair has become a prominent advocate for people living with brain conditions and disabilities.

In August of 2018, Selma was on vacation in Miami, and after jumping off a friend’s boat, she realized that something was wrong with her physically. She shared a post on Instagram, describing her long struggle with chronic pain, and she was encouraged to see a neurologist, who performed an MRI. This test showed that Selma had multiple lesions on her brain caused by relapsing multiple sclerosis (RMS). This neurodegenerative disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and wears away at myelin, the protective coating around the nerve endings of cells in the brain and spinal cord. The pain she experienced while swimming in Florida was a major relapse (or flare-up) of the disease.

Despite her condition having gone undiagnosed for more than 40 years, the diagnosis finally brought clarity to the symptoms she had experienced since childhood.

Selma grew up in a Detroit suburb as the youngest of four girls. She recalls symptoms going all the way back to fourth grade, when she experienced temporary loss of control over her bladder and left leg, as well as vision loss in her right eye. She would also experience unexplained headaches, fevers, a lack of control over her limbs, facial pain, and exhaustion. She struggled with these challenges throughout her life. Her pain became chronic, she started losing feeling in her legs, and she had trouble walking and talking.

But for decades, doctors repeatedly failed to identify the signs of RMS. Like many other women who live with a serious medical condition, her persistent symptoms were frequently dismissed as something benign or even made up, or they were misdiagnosed as some other disease. Specialists suggested that she was experiencing too much stress, depression, the results of malnutrition, or possibly even some form of psychosis. The unexplained symptoms made it difficult to work and socialize, leading to self-loathing.

With the conclusive MRI results, Selma found a new way forward. “I found a new doctor, a great doctor, who could really look at me as a whole person and give me the confidence to start opening up to her about what was going on, what was wrong,” she explained to Flow Space (February 13, 2025). The doctor told her that she’d likely experienced aspects of RMS her whole life. This was a revelation, and suddenly, years of childhood pain and sensitivity started to make sense. So did the symptoms she experienced when she was in labor with her son, Arthur, which she now understands to have been exhaustion from another major RMS flare. Back then, doctors simply told her it was “normal” for new mothers to be in pain all the time (Glamour, November 1, 2023).

A couple of months after receiving her MS diagnosis, she decided to go public about it, revealing the news on Instagram. “I am disabled. I fall sometimes. I drop things. My memory is foggy,” she wrote. “And my left side is asking for directions from a broken GPS.” It was a bold move for a film star, or any public figure, to be so open and candid about living with MS, but it would be a powerful first step toward leadership in advocacy. Her openness about her experience has encouraged others to rise above outdated stigmas and share their own diagnoses.

Like many people with RMS, Selma’s path was filled with ups and downs. She tried different therapies, including a non-traditional option that was physically demanding and required a long recovery. Some other treatments required frequent dosing or caused side effects Selma could not tolerate. While she held onto hope, she eventually relapsed.

This relapse was a turning point. Selma realized she needed to advocate for herself and take a more proactive role in managing her disease. When she looked for answers online, she came to understand that MS treatment is highly personal—what works for some people may not work for everyone—and that finding a provider who truly connects with you, listens to your needs, and supports your goals can make all the difference.

That realization led Selma to her current neurologist—and ultimately to a treatment approach that fit her needs. “My doctor really listens and treats me as a person first, not just a patient,” Selma shared. “Having that open dialogue has made all the difference.” Together, they reviewed her health history, her experiences with prior therapies, and her treatment goals. After those discussions, they agreed it was time to try a different treatment approach.

Today, Selma has embraced the fact that she is a public figure and advocates for not only those who similarly struggle with chronic illnesses or disabilities, but for those who cannot help themselves. In the past, she has worked with the Multiple Sclerosis Association of America and the American Association of People with Disabilities. In her 2022 best-selling memoir, Mean Baby, Selma describes her childhood, her beginnings in Hollywood, and her lifelong journey with RMS.

Selma is a frequent speaker to audiences about her experience with chronic illness, and she constantly works to empower people who are frequently overlooked in the healthcare system. One reason she speaks so openly about her difficulties with MS is that she hopes it can help spare others from trauma when going through similar experiences. As a direct result of her efforts, Selma’s visibility as a disabled person in public spaces such as mainstream award shows has reframed the narrative and public perceptions of those with disabilities. Her high-profile appearances help advance accessibility and inspire others with chronic illness to not let their challenges define them.

“To hear even just me showing up with a cane or sharing something that might be embarrassing, it was a key for a lot of people in finding comfort in themselves and that means everything to me,” she told People (August 16, 2021). “I’m thrilled that I have some platform. By no means am I saying that I’m speaking for all people in this condition or any condition of chronic illness; I’m speaking my story, and if that helps normalize one thing to open the door for other people to be comfortable in telling their stories, I’m thrilled to have this here.”

In 2025, the American Brain Foundation honored Selma at our inaugural Gala in Nashville, Tennessee with our Advocate Award. In February 2026, she became ABF’s first Global Ambassador and National Chair for Brain Health Advancement. “My journey with MS has deepened my awareness of the extraordinary work being done by researchers, who are helping all of us better understand how the brain works,” she said. “Through the American Brain Foundation, I’ve learned just how critical it is that brain research continues without interruption. The Foundation’s commitment to curing one condition on the road to curing many gives me tremendous hope.”

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain conditions. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease. Donate today to make a difference in the lives of people like Selma and so many others.

Memory is a powerful part of the human experience, and the brain has a remarkable ability to retain information for later recall. But what is the biological process for storing and retrieving memories? How reliable are our memories? Considering the prevalence of brain conditions that impair memory, what can we do to improve our own resilience to memory loss as we age?

Think back on an experience you remember from the past, such as an event from your childhood. You may vividly recall certain aspects of this experience—people who were there and what they said or did, places and what they looked like, specific smells or other sensations, or the emotions you felt at the time. As you think about all the details of this memory, it might seem vivid or vague, but even if you’re certain that you clearly recall all the details of your experience, your brain has changed the memory at least a little over time. In a way, your brain changes the memory every time you remember it. Unlike accessing video files on a computer, which bring past events into view exactly as they were recorded, human memory relies on continual reconstruction and re-interpretation.

Psychology Today provides a thorough exploration of memory and how it works. Memories are based on what we experience and perceive. This could be what we see, hear, taste, smell, or feel physically, or what we think or how we feel emotionally. It’s impossible for anyone to notice every single detail that could be perceived at any given moment, but even if we’re incredibly observant, only a select amount of information we take in will be converted to a lasting memory. Many factors affect what is remembered, how much of the experience is captured, and how accurate later recollections might be.

When we form a memory, our perception of that thing, person, place, event, or experience is naturally biased, because it’s based on our own individual point of view. Later, when revisiting that memory, our understanding of it can change. It can be revised, enhanced, distorted, or clarified as we consider new information, different emotions, and other people’s perceptions or points of view.

Memory allows us to retain information that can help us build a foundation of knowledge, revisit and learn from past experiences, adjust our behavior to present situations. On a primitive level, memory plays a crucial role in our survival. It helps us remember dangers and avoid future threats. For example, if we touch something hot, like a pan that’s been heating on a stove, we remember the pain of that experience, and this helps us learn that we should refrain from touching the hot pan again.

The first stage in the process of forming a memory is called encoding. This is when the details of an experienced perception, thought, or feeling are converted into a form that can be stored for later recall. We’re most likely to encode details we’re actively paying attention to or details that have a personal significance for us. The second stage is retention, when the details of an experience are stored for later retrieval. We may not have the full picture of an experience at the time a memory is encoded, and sometimes, information we gather fades quickly. Memories are then consolidated. This process, which happens during sleep, integrates new memories into our complex tapestry of existing memories.

Sleep also helps with memory retention. So far, scientists haven’t definitively determined if sleep directly supports the process of memory consolidation or if it helps simply because we’re not awake to form other memories that compete for our attention. However, many studies going back more than a century have shown that rest improves memory. If you have a final exam tomorrow, your memory will function better if you start studying earlier and then go to bed, as opposed to trying to stay up all night long until the test.

Different parts of the brain have different roles in memory retention and recall. One of the most important structures for memory is the hippocampus (Latin for “seahorse,” due to its similar shape). Humans have two hippocampi, one in each of the brain’s hemispheres. The hippocampus is where short-term memories are consolidated into long-term memories, and it’s where the process of memory formation is thought to begin. This structure also has a role in spatial memory, which helps us navigate our surroundings. In Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia, the hippocampus is one of the first regions to suffer damage, which is why the early symptoms of these conditions are short-term memory loss and disorientation. The hippocampus can also be damaged by encephalitis, hypoxia (when the brain is starved of oxygen), and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.

However, the brain stores memories in multiple places. Some kinds of memories exist distributed throughout networks comprised of neurons, especially those located in the outermost layer of the cerebrum, the cerebral cortex. These are nerve cells in the brain that send signals to one another via chemicals called neurotransmitters, which travel across synapses, or gaps between neurons. The human brain has billions of neurons, which enable it to store, recall, and process a lifetime’s worth of information and memories. There are also other brain structures that have roles in memory, such as the basal ganglia (associated with many functions, such as cognition and learning) and the amygdala (which integrates emotional responses into memory).

So, memories are associated with different brain regions depending on their type. But it has long been theorized that many types of memories are distributed in component pieces spread out over different areas of the brain. In this concept, the term engram describes a set of all the changes that happen at the synapses connecting brain cells that work together to retain a memory. When we learn something new and form a memory, all the specific cells involved in that engram are activated, and when we recall the memory later, that same engram is reactivated. In fact, this process of cell reactivation can be seen with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which supports the engram theory.

When we recall a memory, we summon it from where it’s stored throughout our neural network and bring it to our attention. This can happen consciously, such as when we’re deliberately trying to remember something we learned or experienced, or unconsciously, such as when a familiar song effortlessly comes to mind.

When our attention shifts to something else, we return the memory to storage. But this isn’t as simple as returning a book to a library shelf. Rather, the act of remembering changes how a memory is stored across neurons. That’s because when we revisit a memory, we add further thoughts, context, perspective, or emotions. We form new associations between the memory and what it means to us. This literally causes neurons to form different connections with other neurons, which is an example of neuroplasticity.

This re-sorting of memories is called reconsolidation. On the one hand, it can deepen our understanding and appreciation for what we’ve learned or experienced and help us recognize connections with other information we’ve gathered. On the other hand, reconsolidation causes memories to constantly change and evolve, which means they can become less reliable over time. Because we reassemble memories from dispersed pieces each time we bring them to mind, they are prone to have gaps—aspects of the memory that are not retained, either because we haven’t thought of certain details of the memory in a long time or because we failed to notice those details when we formed the memory in the first place. This makes memories vulnerable to distortion over time. Internal or external influences can lead us to fill in the gaps unconsciously, which can potentially cause the formation of false memories. Malicious individuals can even deliberately manipulate others into doubting the accuracy of their own memories, in favor of false narratives (this is known as gaslighting). Typically, though, the more attention you pay to an experience as it happens, the more details you notice, which helps you form more resilient memories.

However, there is also some benefit to having malleable memories. For example, psychotherapists can guide patients to confront painful memories and adjust how they experience them in the present. This is often fundamental to healing from past trauma.

There are things you can do to help boost your memory skills. This is especially relevant for older adults and others who may be at risk for neurodegenerative diseases like dementia, but people of all ages can benefit from memorization strategies and healthy living guidance to boost their memory skills.

Certainly there are several memory tricks you can employ to reinforce your retention and ability to quickly retrieve information. These include mnemonic devices, such as remembering acronyms that represent a collection of words or remembering a phrase that represents a series of letters; grouping items into categories; or visualizing objects in a familiar space (a memory palace). You can divide complex information, like a long phone number, into smaller chunks. Additionally, you can improve recall by minimizing distractions, so you can pay closer attention to the information you’re trying to memorize. Spacing out study sessions and taking regular breaks can help with retention of facts for exams. You can also take quizzes, use flashcards with a partner, or review sample test questions for better recall of these details. There are numerous clubs and online communities that focus on improving memory as a hobby, and many hold memory competitions. While these strategies are often used in scholastic settings, they can be useful throughout your life.

But there are also broader lifestyle changes that can be beneficial for many people.

Sleep

Getting enough good-quality sleep is essential for memory, especially for physical skills and newly acquired knowledge. As previously mentioned, sleep allows the brain to consolidate memories without the interruption of new waking experiences and stimuli. In addition, sleep is when the brain shifts into restoration mode for the body and mind. One of its functions during sleep is to flush out waste materials, such as beta amyloid proteins, which in the case of Alzheimer’s start accumulating into clumps that eventually cause the death of neurons and spreading neurodegeneration.

Exercise

As is the case for nearly any other health concern, regular, well-timed exercise can benefit memory. Moderate-to-high-intensity cardiovascular exercise just before or just after a learning period can enhance your ability to recall that new information later. Exercise also helps reduce stress, which helps with both sleep and memory.

Diet

Two diets have been found to have positive long-term effects on brain health, including memory. These are the Mediterranean diet and the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) Diet. Both emphasize eating vegetables, beans, berries, nuts, whole grains, olive oil, and fish, and limiting sweets, red meat, butter, cheese, and fried foods.

Keeping the Mind Active

While memory loss is a common symptom of neurodegenerative disorders, it also occurs to some extent from natural aging. Fortunately, there are some ways to fight against this. Individuals who regularly keep their brain engaged through hobbies, reading and learning, puzzles, and social connections with family and friends help slow down brain aging.

Our human ability to recall memories made throughout our lives is incredibly impressive, complex, and beautiful. We should not settle for a world where neurodegeneration and memory loss are seen as inevitable aspects of getting older. Through sustaining commitment to funding brain research, we can support scientists in their work to figure out this problem and someday prevent anyone from experiencing the tragedy of memory loss.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease. Donate today to make a difference.

Several past and present American Brain Foundation research grant recipients have been featured in the media recently. We wanted to take a moment to share what these brilliant scientists have been doing to improve treatments and bring us closer to cures for brain diseases and disorders. Their work is making a difference, and it’s only possible thanks to the compassion and dedication of generous donors like you.

In 1996, Merit Cudkowicz, MD, MSc, received the American Brain Foundation’s very first Next Generation Research Grant for her study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). She is now a member of our board of directors, Executive Director of Mass General Brigham Neuroscience Institute, and Director of the Sean M. Healey & AMG Center for ALS. She is one of the world’s foremost experts on ALS, formerly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. ALS is a rapidly progressing neurodegenerative disease that attacks motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord, leading to muscle weakness and atrophy, and then death, in most cases within three to five years.

Dr. Cudkowicz continues to be involved with discoveries and advances in ALS research, and this spring she published results of a phase 2b clinical trial of new medication that could help treat the condition, as reported in a press release from Mass General Brigham. The orally administered drug, currently known as PrimeC, was found to be safe and well tolerated in people living with ALS. While not a cure for ALS, the drug was found to improve symptoms and reduce the risk of serious ALS-related complications. It works by targeting neuroinflammation, excess iron accumulation, and abnormal microRNA activity in ALS.

“The improved functional and biomarker signals we observed support a phase 3 study to evaluate PrimeC’s effectiveness and safety in a larger population,” Dr. Cudkowicz concluded. “The importance of following up on potential therapies that can slow the course of ALS is extraordinarily high for patients and families. We are determined to accelerate the development of therapies for people living with ALS.”

Mark Milner, PhD, a 2026 Next Generation Research Grant recipient, was recently interviewed by MLive about his American Brain Foundation–funded multiple sclerosis (MS) research. His work focuses on microglia, a type of immune cell in the brain, and how these normally helpful cells can become harmful to nerve fibers in people with MS. “My project focuses on looking at that switch between a happy, healthy microglia and a more reactive, inflammatory microglia,” he said.

Dr. Milner is testing whether removing or suppressing a particular gene can prevent these disease-associated microglia from forming. He is also exploring whether an existing drug for treating a blood disorder could be repurposed to “turn down” this gene. Early data suggests that this drug could be both preventative and restorative. In model studies, this medication appears to repair damaged nerve connections and even restore lost sight. He anticipates publishing the results of his study at the end of 2027, though his research is already contributing valuable data and insight for treating MS.

Another 2026 Next Generation Research Grant recipient, Alexandra Bayer Wildberger, PhD, is investigating myasthenia gravis (MG), a disorder that also involves dysfunction of immune responses. MG is a neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the muscles used to control body function and movement. This occurs when the immune system produces autoantibodies that mistakenly block the normal activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This interrupts signals from nerve endings to muscles, preventing muscle contraction.

As a researcher based at Yale University, Dr. Bayer Wildberger was recently featured in CT Insider. The story highlights her American Brain Foundation-funded research to determine the biological mechanisms of autoantibodies in people with MG.

In most cases of MG, an autoantibody called immunoglobin G (IgG) targets proteins at the junctions between nerves and muscles. However, in a minority of cases, a different autoantibody called immunoglobin M (IgM) is also involved in targeting proteins. So far, scientists have not identified a reason why some people with MG have harmful IgM autoantibodies and others do not. Dr. Bayer Wildberger aims to answer this question by unraveling the molecular processes that drive the disease.

Understanding the autoimmune mechanisms at work in different cases of the disease could lead to improved and more personalized treatments. Currently, therapies only target IgG-related pathways. “So if it happens that lgM has a role, that subset of patients that harbor these types of antibodies will somehow not be fully addressed,” said Dr. Bayer-Wildberger. “So the idea will be to identify those patients that have it, and we identify which is the right treatment that might benefit that patient.”

Caghan Kizil, PhD, a recipient of our latest Cure One, Cure Many Award to study neuroinflammation, has been featured in an article about a new study of the gene known as APOE. This gene is responsible for encoding the protein apolipoprotein E, which is involved in the metabolism of fats. There are three different alleles, or variants, of the gene: APOE ε2, APOE ε3, and APOE ε4. The APOE ε3 variant is the most common worldwide, while 15 to 25 percent have APOE ε4 and 5 to 10 percent have APOE ε2. Dr. Kizil’s American Brain Foundation-funded study is focused on APOE ε4, which is the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease.

The study, conducted by researchers at the Buck Institute for Research on Aging, explored APOE ε2, which may help protect the brain from Alzheimer’s and the effects of aging. Researchers investigated the biological mechanisms that might explain the reasons why individuals with APOE ε2 tend to live longer and have lower Alzheimer’s risk. They found that beyond APOE’s established role in cholesterol transport, the APOE ε2 variant helps neurons better repair DNA damage and resist aging. “The long-term goal is to help vulnerable brains age more like resilient brains,” Dr. Kizil says. “We believe the future of Alzheimer’s research lies in preventing at-risk individuals from becoming diseased in the first place.”

Research to diagnose, prevent, treat, and cure brain diseases and disorders can only happen when it’s supported by funding. Established government institutions like the National Institutes of Health were the target of unprecedented federal budget cuts in 2025. While many of the cuts have been restored, many fully approved studies have not received promised funding, and damage from the cuts to research labs cannot be undone. This reduction in investment in health science has severely impeded progress toward curing diseases. This is a setback for all health research initiatives, including studies of brain diseases affecting billions globally.

Scientific research needs much more support. Fortunately, independent donors at all levels can help to sponsor research that cumulatively increases our odds of defeating brain diseases sooner. More than a third of all people will experience a brain disease of some sort within their lifetime—be it ALS, MS, MG, Alzheimer’s, or one of hundreds of other common or uncommon conditions. The American Brain Foundation funds research across the spectrum of the brain and nervous system. This is an effective strategy, because the discoveries made in one area will help inform and lead to new discoveries in others. When we cure one brain disease, we will cure many.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease. Donate today to make a difference.

In March, American Brain Foundation Next Generation Research Grant recipients Dr. Riley Bove (awarded 2013) and Dr. Maria Pia Campagna (awarded 2026) presented an in-depth webinar on “Menopause and the Brain.” The program’s guests discussed menopause and its effect on cognitive aging, hormone therapy, and how Dr. Campagna’s research could help clinicians provide women with individualized guidance to reduce their risk of dementia later in life.

 

Riley Bove, MD, is a practicing neurologist and clinician-scientist at University of California San Francisco, and a 2013 recipient of a Next Generation Research Grant. A national and international leader in the sex and gender aspects of neurology, she has published, collaborated, and lectured widely on this topic. She is the founding director of the Sex And Gender-Enriched (SAGE) Neurology program at UCSF. Dr. Bove sees patients at the UCSF Multiple Sclerosis and Neuroinflammation Center, where she provides comprehensive care for individuals with multiple sclerosis as informed by their sex, their gender, their reproductive goals, and more broadly by their life phase and goals.

Maria Pia Campagna, PhD, also at UCSF and a member of Dr. Bove’s lab, is a 2026 recipient of a Next Generation Research Grant in Cognitive Aging and Age-Related Memory Loss, funded by the McKnight Brain Research Foundation through the American Brain Foundation. Dr. Campagna’s research aims to identify the mechanisms that manage the relationship between reproductive lifespan (the years from the beginning of menstruation to menopause) and cognition through an investigation involving many layers of biological analysis.

The webinar was hosted by special guest Alice Luo Clayton, PhD, CEO of the McKnight Brain Research Foundation. A neuroscientist herself, Dr. Luo Clayton has more than 15 years of programmatic leadership and strategic advising experience in government and private philanthropy.

Watch a recording of the webinar on our YouTube channel here:

Menopause is a time of transition that marks the end of a woman’s potential childbearing years, because it’s at this point that ovaries stop producing estrogen to prepare her for possible pregnancy. This is preceded by perimenopause, a phase when estrogen levels decline and follicle-stimulating hormone levels increase. Dr. Bove explains that in Western society, menopause naturally occurs around age 51 on average, and the date is identified based on a woman’s final menstrual period. The post-menopause phase is considered to begin after twelve consecutive months without a period. Dr. Bove points out that human beings are unique in having such a long lifespan after menopause. She refers to this as an “evolutionary superpower,” because it’s been theorized that this protracted post-menopause phase made it possible for female humans to transition roles from childbearing to raising their children and grandchildren to adulthood.

Even so, in practice menopause and perimenopause cause significant biological changes, which typically have short-term effects as the body adjusts to the loss of gonadal estrogen. This results in short-term symptoms like hot flashes and night sweats, changes to sleep and mood, increased fatigue, and other symptoms. Many women also experience some short-term challenges to memory and attention, which Dr. Bove refers to as a cognitive “wobble.” She also notes that the type and severity of physical symptoms can vary significantly from person to person, due to genetic heritage, social and cultural factors (like types of diet in different geographic regions, smoking, and stress), the number of children a woman may have, and environmental factors like exposure to certain pesticides.

But beyond these temporary changes, menopause often has long-term effects. Fat cells continue to produce some estrogen, but the overall reduction of estrogen levels can lead to bone-density loss (osteoporosis), increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and metabolic changes leading to weight gain or loss of muscle mass. And research has also shown links between menopause and dementia or cognitive decline later in life. Another past Next Generation Research Grant recipient, Carolyn Fredericks, MD, recently spoke about this very topic in an interview with Pharmacy Times.

Women who have had surgical menopause, or menopause triggered by a bilateral oophorectomy (the removal of both ovaries, usually to treat ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or other conditions), have a shortened reproductive lifespan, and they face a much higher risk of developing dementia. In fact, women who undergo surgical menopause before age 45 alarmingly face a 70-percent higher risk. Biologically, early loss of estrogen and/or a shorter time from puberty to menopause tends to result in brain volume loss, damage to the nervous system (which can be seen later in a postmortem autopsy), and a higher risk of other diseases (including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and stroke). Dr. Bove says that in observational studies, menopause hormone therapy, formerly called hormone replacement therapy or HRT, has been shown to have some protective effect for women who had early or surgical menopause. However, clinicians must currently rely on imprecise, general guidance for when a patient should start or continue hormone therapy.

The seriousness of these cognitive outcomes underscores why understanding menopause’s effects on brain health should be a critical research priority. While support for this research has been limited in the past, Dr. Bove notes that it has been growing rapidly in recent years. She credits three overlapping factors that contribute to this trend:

1. We have an aging population, which means that more women are experiencing the effects of menopause-related dementia.
2. There has been a surge in societal and scientific interest.
3. We have new technologies that help us better understand how to study the effects of menopause on brain health.

Dr. Bove emphasizes the significant positive effect of societal shifts, such as more women becoming scientists, policymakers, funders, clinicians, and even customers than in the past.

Dr. Campagna’s study stands to contribute significantly to scientific understanding of menopause’s effects on the brain. In discussing her work, she begins with a focus on risk factors for postmenopausal dementia and cognitive decline. She explains that understanding, at a granular level, the risk factors associated with menopause is crucial to informing biology and supporting women’s midlife health. One of the challenges with studying risk factors is the lag time between menopause and cognitive outcomes—typically the effects aren’t seen for 20 years or more. But in this case, leveraging data from early or surgical menopause and hormone therapy is helpful for understanding risk factors.

First, Dr. Campagna seeks to determine if the risk factors associated with postmenopausal cognitive decline in fact cause the decline. If so, she wants to pinpoint the underlying biological mechanisms for this decline. If research can determine the processes by which a change in hormone levels at menopause leads to or influences neurodegenerative conditions (such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and multiple sclerosis) or other types of dementia or cognitive decline, then that would potentially give scientists molecular targets for therapeutic solutions.

This research has two big advantages: very thorough cohort data and an advanced method of analysis. The cohort, or the group of participants included in the study, includes 204 postmenopausal women from the Chicago area, now deceased, who agreed to participate the study. Some of the women developed dementia before death, and others did not. About 30 percent of the cohort experienced surgical menopause, on average slightly younger than the 51-year-old average age for spontaneous (i.e., non-surgical) menopause. They each took a battery of 21 cognitive tests and a demographics and lifestyle survey. They self-reported their menopause type, their menopause age, and if they’d ever had hormone therapy. This clinical data alone would provide a wealth of information for potential scientific insight, but in addition, the research team has the full cohort’s postmortem brain tissue to analyze.

Admittedly, this cohort is limited in terms of racial diversity, and for more representative data, it’s important to prioritize diversity and inclusion in future studies. Even so, the cohort provides an enormous amount of data that can be analyzed with multi-omics. This refers to a method for analyzing large biological datasets, or collections of data from a cohort, that can consider many different factors at once on a molecular level. Using powerful computing technology, researchers can use this method to gain a comprehensive understanding of the granular biological mechanisms at work among the members of the cohort. They can also study the connections between processes, which helps fill in the gaps in existing scientific knowledge. This modern approach is particularly helpful in complex genetic and immunological studies.

This project is realizing one of UCSF SAGE Neurology’s stated research goals: mapping the molecular signatures of menopause through integrated multi-omic profiling. It links (a) the reproductive lifespan to (b) data from the brain tissue, particularly from the prefrontal cortex but also considering specific brain cell types. This includes several layers of genetic and molecular detail. This is then linked to (c) cognitive outcomes, such as the effects on different types of memory, perceptual speed, and visuospatial ability. The study triangulates these three factors, allowing the researchers to go from knowing that reduced reproductive lifespan is associated with cognitive decline in late life to understanding what the molecular state of the brain was at a given time for different cognitive aging profiles.

Dr. Campagna shared some preliminary results of her study, particularly regarding early menopause versus later menopause. The analysis showed that in early menopause, there was increased activity in neurological pathways that are primarily neuron-based, while in later menopause, there was increased activity in pathways related to completely different signaling processes. “What is striking about this is that these are such different biological signatures, depending on when menopause occurs,” Dr. Campagna says. “This insight helps with relating molecular processes to different aging profiles.” If the biological processes leading to cognitive decline are different depending on whether menopause occurs earlier or later in life, that has major implications for clinical guidance and treatment.

In addition to learning more about menopause-related cognitive outcomes, this work will help researchers understand the effect of surgical versus spontaneous menopause. It will also improve our understanding of the effects of hormone therapy, which will allow clinicians to someday provide more individualized, data-driven recommendations. For example, providers could accurately advise a patient on whether hormone therapy might be right for her, especially if she had surgical menopause, or if she would benefit from other types of therapy. They could also recommend other steps to reduce her personal risk of menopause-related dementia or cognitive decline. Over time, this kind of research will lead to better health outcomes for women and their families around the world.

Dr. Bove and the team at SAGE Neurology also have some ideas for ways that clinics could help women better manage the menopausal transition, including anticipatory guidance starting at age 45, collaborative care and referral models, plans for comprehensive symptom management, and the arrangement of wellness and prevention visits for women post-menopause.

This work will lead to molecular profiles of cognitive aging, which will be applicable to a broad population of people including, with further study, different populations (even men) who experience dementia and cognitive aging. Bold, foundational studies like this are why we fund research across the full spectrum of brain health, aging, and disease. All conditions of the brain are interconnected. When we cure one, we will cure many.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

In January, Jasmeer Chhatwal, MD, PhD, MMSc, Associate Professor of Neurology at Harvard Medical School, presented a well-attended American Brain Foundation webinar called “Staying Sharp as We Age: Science-Backed Tips for Healthy Brain Aging.” This informative discussion covered the topic of cognitive decline and the things we all can do to maximize our brain health as we get older.

 

Dr. Chhatwal is a neurology professor, a practicing neurologist at Brigham Women’s and Mass General Hospitals, and a 2012 recipient of an American Brain Foundation Next Generation Research Grant for his work to identify changes in brain networks that distinguish early Alzheimer’s disease from the effects of normal aging. Receiving a Next Generation Research Grant was instrumental in supporting his career in neurology, as it gave him the time he needed to find great mentors, time to get more advanced statistical training, and time to focus on and identify specific clinical problems he wanted to address. During this time, he also was able to establish relationships with long-term scientific collaborators such as the Harvard Aging Brain Study and the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network, joining these programs as a junior researcher. He now continues to work in a leadership capacity with both groups.

As a clinical neurologist, Dr. Chhatwal specializes in treating patients with early-onset and genetically driven Alzheimer’s disease. He also directs the Biomarkers of Neurodegeneration, Inflammation, and Cognitive Decline (BioNIC) laboratory at Massachusetts General Hospital, where he and other researchers are working to develop blood tests for earlier and more effective diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease.

Watch a recording of the webinar on our YouTube channel here:

In the webinar, Dr. Chhatwal notes that, along with other dementias, Alzheimer’s disease is a widespread global problem that is growing in prevalence as the average human lifespan is increasing. This represents a major concern for individuals, families, and public health systems. By 2050, more than 100 million people in the world will be directly affected by Alzheimer’s—unless effective preventions or cures are discovered soon. This looming crisis will require forward-thinking strategies to provide care for such a large segment of the world population. However, it’s in all people’s best interest to try to reduce their own risk of developing symptoms or at least take proactive steps to improve their health and thereby slow the rate of potential cognitive decline.

Alzheimer’s disease is the result of the buildup of two different substances within brain cells. First, there are accumulations of proteins called beta-amyloid. Beta-amyloid proteins are byproducts of metabolism that can become “misfolded” and clump together to form amyloid plaques, which can grow to the point of destroying neurons in the brain. Second, there are accumulations of proteins called tau, which start to develop later. These concentrations, called neurofibrillary tangles, have a similar neurodegenerative effect on brain tissue and function. The accumulation of both types of proteins leads to brain atrophy through the death of neurons, and this causes symptoms such as memory loss and the impairment of functions like decision-making, problem-solving, and emotional regulation.

Alzheimer’s begins long before patients start to display symptoms. Dr. Chhatwal explains that amyloid plaques can start to form in neurons 10 to 20 years before outward symptoms become noticeable. He explains that these buildups can be detected through PET scans, in cerebrospinal fluid tests, and increasingly in blood tests, but doctors don’t usually counsel people to have those tests unless they’re currently experiencing mild cognitive symptoms. However, he notes that this advice might change in a few years as more long-range studies are conducted. In theory, if amyloid plaques are detected years earlier than Alzheimer’s symptoms, there would be a reasonable window of time to intervene before the onset of cognitive impairment. Potential interventions could include methods to prevent or clear out the protein plaques that eventually accumulate to the point of destroying brain cells.

As a caveat, Dr. Chhatwal explains that not everyone who experiences these protein accumulations goes on to develop cognitive impairment or dementia. His research group is working to understand why this is the case, which could help scientists develop effective drugs or preventative strategies. In the meantime, there are some strategies that can help patients maximize their brain health if they do have buildups of beta-amyloid or tau proteins.

First off, it’s important to recognize that Alzheimer’s disease may be the most prevalent form of dementia, but there are other common conditions that cause or influence cognitive decline. Cerebrovascular disease—in which circulatory issues with blood flow in the body can lead to negative consequences for the brain—is particularly common, both worldwide and in the United States. Rates of cerebrovascular disease increase sharply during people’s late eighties, and cardiovascular health is directly related to brain health. For example, Dr. Chhatwal’s research team found that cardiovascular issues like high blood pressure and elevated body mass index (BMI) are statistical risk factors for cognitive decline among those with high levels of amyloid buildup. These conditions are also associated with increased loss of brain tissue over time in areas of the brain that are involved in memory and regulating emotions and attention.

Through their own research, Dr. Chhatwal’s team has found that amyloid buildup and vascular risk both contribute to the buildup of tau proteins in Alzheimer’s disease. In addition to recommending standard cardiovascular health practices like monitoring blood pressure, managing body weight, and avoiding smoking, he explains that it’s important to treat and manage risks like atrial fibrillation or a propensity toward forming blood clots that could block blood flow to the brain and cause strokes. Strokes are often a precursor to future development of Alzheimer’s.

Regular exercise can make a big difference. Research has also shown that among individuals with amyloid buildup, those with high levels of physical activity show a significantly slower rate of cognitive decline than those with low levels of physical activity. They also experienced less brain atrophy, or tissue loss, over time. Fortunately, adopting positive exercise habits isn’t as daunting as you might think. In fact, Dr. Chhatwal says that longitudinal studies show that only a moderate level of physical activity (5,000 to 7,000 steps per day) is needed to reduce tau protein buildup and slow the rate of cognitive decline. Research has yet to identify if there are certain types of physical activity that are better for this than others, but he says the important thing is to pick a type of moderate exercise that’s sustainable on an individual level—in other words, something you’re more likely to keep doing over time. Exercising with a class, or even walking with friends, is doubly beneficial because it provides social engagement, which keeps the brain active and can lift mood. He expresses that mood is an important and often overlooked aspect of a positive quality of life.

In addition to regular cardiovascular activity, Dr. Chhatwal recommends eating a heart-healthy diet. While he doesn’t necessarily advocate for a specific diet, he explains that avoiding processed foods, excess salt, and saturated fats is great for brain health, because it helps protect the small blood vessels in the brain.

Getting a healthy amount of good-quality sleep is also strongly related to preventing or slowing the rate of cognitive decline. That’s because sleep is when the brain normally clears out accumulated toxic proteins such as beta-amyloid and tau. This occurs primarily during the third stage of sleep, known as slow-wave sleep or deep sleep. During this stage, the brain clears toxic proteins and flushes them out through adjacent blood vessels so the body can dispose of them. Those who have disrupted sleep may not be able to clear out these proteins as easily, and this could lead to buildups that increase cognitive decline and brain tissue loss. Elevated BMI can contribute to poor quality sleep, as can sleep apnea, because the brain needs a good supply of oxygen for this process.

Then, during the stage called REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, the brain consolidates memories. Specifically, it’s at this stage that the brain sorts short-term memories into long-term storage. In his first independent NIH-funded study, Dr. Chhatwal found that people who had reduced amounts of REM sleep or took a longer time to get into REM sleep had greater levels of beta-amyloid and tau proteins and had a tendency toward greater brain tissue loss over time. Getting sleep at consistent times helps maintain circadian rhythms (the brain’s internal clock separating periods of activity and rest), which seems to help reduce beta-amyloid and tau protein buildup. Similarly, getting enough sleep is important to reduce dementia risk, although the overall amount of sleep a person gets technically isn’t as important as the amount of time spent in specific sleep cycles. Practically speaking, it’s best to get at least six and a half hours of sleep every 24 hours, starting at approximately the same time each night.

Dr. Chhatwal offers the following suggestions for getting better sleep:

1. Treat chronic pain. If this is something you experience for any reason, speaking with a care provider to appropriately manage that condition will help you get more and better sleep.
2. Create a dark or quiet environment. Avoid television, especially emotion-arousing news or opinion programs.
3. Avoid stimulants, including coffee, in the late afternoon or evening.
4. Stay active during the day.
5. Get exposure to sunlight when possible and minimize exposure to blue light (the type emitted by digital screens—phones, computers, and TVs).
6. Create a bedtime routine. Practicing regular habits each night helps to train your mind to recognize that it’s time for sleep.
7. Some individuals who experience insomnia may benefit from regularly taking over-the-counter melatonin (approximately 45 minutes before bed, every day).
8. If you are taking donepezil or a similar medication, it’s often best to try taking it in the morning (as usually prescribed) rather than at night.

Several viewers had questions about melatonin and mentioned concerns about possible heart disease risk or nightmares. Dr. Chhatwal clarified that while melatonin isn’t effective for everyone, it works best for training the day-night rhythm over time, for a more long-term approach to improving sleep, rather than serving as an as-needed sleep aid. It doesn’t have a pronounced drowsy “hangover” effect that other sleep aids do, and it has few interactions with other medications. He believes there will soon be better alternatives to melatonin for this kind of sleep training, and he notes that some recently FDA-approved medications work this way. He says there isn’t much evidence that melatonin use increases cognitive decline. If you’re struggling to get enough quality sleep, it’s best to speak directly with an experienced care provider to help you find an appropriate customized solution.

We hope that research will lead to a cure for Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia, but in the meantime, researchers like Dr. Chhatwal and his team are finding that there are ways to prevent or at least slow the effects of cognitive decline. “Cognitive decline as you get older is not inevitable,” he insists. “We’re learning more about the processes that lead to it and what can be done to prevent it.” His research data shows that being proactive about cardiovascular health and getting good sleep are two of the most important things people can do to stay sharp over time. This is great advice for everyone, and especially for those who have Alzheimer’s disease or protein buildups that could one day lead to neurodegenerative symptoms.

We’re extremely grateful to Dr. Chhatwal for taking the time to speak on this important topic, and we’re very excited about the research he and his team are conducting. To be the first to hear about upcoming webinars, please sign up for the American Brain Foundation newsletter.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Research to help us better understand how FTD, ALS, and Alzheimer’s disease are connected will lead to more effective ways to diagnose, treat, and ultimately cure degenerative brain diseases.

 

At the American Brain Foundation, we know that when we discover the cure for one brain disease, we will cure many others. This approach to research comes from our knowledge that all brain diseases are connected. Current research in the area of neurodegenerative diseases offers a prime example of how these connections help us better understand the causes, progression, and potential treatments for a range of diseases.

Below we explore some of the connections between several types of neurodegenerative diseases that result in dementia and cognitive decline: Alzheimer’s disease and ALS-FTD spectrum disorders.

Dementia is a general term for memory loss and other serious cognitive and behavioral changes that affect a person’s daily life. There are multiple types of dementia, and different diseases can cause dementia at various stages. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia, accounting for 60 to 80% of all cases. 

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by progressive memory loss beyond what is expected with normal aging. It is caused by buildups of misfolded proteins in the brain, which damage the surrounding tissue and disrupt communication between the nerves in different parts of the brain. Because the primary cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer’s do not appear until well after the disease has started, it is very difficult to diagnose and treat.

Frontotemporal disorders (FTD) are a group of neurodegenerative disorders associated with changes in the brain’s frontal and temporal lobes, which control functions related to personality, behavior, and language. People with FTD experience shrinking of these lobes, as well as the buildup of certain proteins in the brain. In some cases, FTD has been linked to genetic mutations, but more than half of people with FTD have no family history of the disease.

A person’s specific symptoms and the order in which they appear will vary from case to case, often depending on which areas of the brain are affected. Generally, changes in the frontal lobe affect behavior while changes in the temporal lobe affect language and emotions. These changes could lead to impulsive, apathetic, socially inappropriate, and/or repetitive compulsive behavior, or problems with language or loss of speech. Cases marked by primarily cognitive, language, and memory symptoms are sometimes referred to as frontotemporal dementia (also known as Pick’s disease).

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rapidly progressing neurodegenerative disease that attacks the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control voluntary muscle movement. As these nerve cells are damaged and eventually die, they stop sending messages to muscles throughout the body, causing the muscles to weaken, twitch, and deteriorate.

The main symptoms of ALS include muscle weakness, stiffness, and atrophy. As the disease progresses, people with ALS have difficulty standing, moving, walking, swallowing, and speaking. Eventually, they lose the ability to breathe without a ventilator.

The disease is caused by a decline in motor neuron function, but it’s not yet clear why this occurs in some people and not others. In 90% to 95% of cases, the cause of ALS is sporadic, meaning there is no clear cause, risk factor, or family history. Research suggests that risk factors for sporadic ALS include smoking, exposure to environmental toxins, physical trauma, viral infection, and intense exertion. Other possible risk factors include extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields, cardiovascular disease, exposure to formaldehyde or lead, and military service, which could include a variety of potential triggers for the condition. 

Dementia is linked to a buildup of proteins that damage and kill nerve cells in the brain. The clumping of different types of proteins lead to different types of dementia. For example, in people with Alzheimer’s, beta-amyloid proteins build up between nerve cells and tau proteins accumulate inside nerve cells. Abnormal accumulations of tau, TDP-43, and FUS proteins are commonly linked to FTD, while abnormal alpha-synuclein proteins are associated with Lewy body dementia.  

There are also some differences between the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and the dementia that results from frontotemporal disorders. Symptoms of FTD typically appear earlier in life—between ages 40 and 65—and Alzheimer’s disease usually develops after age 65. Memory loss is more prominent in early Alzheimer’s than early FTD. Behavioral changes are usually the first symptom of the most common form of FTD and tend to occur later in Alzheimer’s. Issues with spatial orientation are more common with Alzheimer’s, while speech problems are more common with FTD. 

These similar mechanisms and overlapping symptoms create targeted opportunities for research. While different types of dementia each have their own specific causes, identifying how to treat the harmful protein buildups responsible for one of these diseases will aid in the treatment of all the others.  

FTD and ALS share some genetic characteristics and may share common causes in some cases. In 2011, researchers discovered that the C9orf72 gene mutation can cause both ALS and FTD, and other genes have also been identified to play a role in both diseases. Additionally, in 2025, researchers including American Brain Foundation board member Merit Cudkowicz, MD, MSc, and past Next Generation Research Grant recipient James D. Berry, MD, MPH, confirmed that in ALS, inflammatory immune cells, called CD4+ T cells, mistakenly target and attack neurons containing C9orf72 proteins. This suggests that ALS may in fact be an autoimmune disorder, which would explain why it spreads rapidly. Research has also found that in most people with FTD and ALS, deposits of a protein called TDP-43 accumulate in nerve cells.

Rather than two distinctly separate diseases, researchers now think in terms of an ALS-FTD spectrum, with diagnoses depending on whether movement-based or cognitive symptoms appear first.

As researchers learn more about the genetics, causes, and symptoms of ALS and FTD, those insights provide a better understanding of both diseases and can aid in the development of more effective treatments. 

ALS itself is not known to be associated with cognitive impairment or have a direct link to Alzheimer’s disease specifically. But studies show that as ALS progresses, some people develop a form of dementia that presents as FTD. Research shows that as many as 50% of people with ALS develop cognitive and/or behavioral impairment, with 20% meeting criteria for a dementia diagnosis. The other half of people with ALS do not develop these symptoms. On the other hand, about 30% of people with FTD develop motor problems associated with ALS. 

By investing in research across all neurodegenerative diseases, we increase the chances of finding key insights that will apply to more than one disease.  

The American Brain Foundation is currently funding multiple researchers looking into ALS-FTD spectrum disorders, including Chen Eitan, PhD, Jesús García-Castro, MD, Maarten Ottenhoff, PhD, Janani Parameswaran, PhD, Arens Taga, MD, and Joe Viteri, PhD. Additionally, Maria Pia Campagna, PhD, Quentin Devignes, PhD, Esteban Luna, MD, PhD, Giovanna Pilonieta, PhD, DDS, Deborah Rose, MD and Pavel Yanev, MD, PhD are conducting research on Alzheimer’s disease, other types of dementia, and related aspects of cognitive aging and memory loss. This research may yield additional insights into the formation of FTD and other dementias. 

The American Brain Foundation’s Cure One Cure Many Award supports research to find a biomarker for the early diagnosis of Lewy body dementia. Finding a biomarker (diagnostic test) for Lewy body dementia would help distinguish it from other dementia disorders and offer clues for effectively diagnosing diseases like Alzheimer’s and FTD. Currently, Lenora Higginbotham, MD, Alice Chen-Plotkin, MD, and Owen Ross, PhD, along with their co-investigators and research teams, are exploring hypotheses that could lead to reliable methods of diagnosing this specific type of dementia early on in living patients. 

As we pursue research into ALS-FTD and Alzheimer’s disease, we have the potential to contribute to greater breakthroughs across many different neurodegenerative diseases. These research insights will lead to new or improved treatments, better diagnosis methods, and ultimately cures for a range of brain diseases. 

 

 

The American Brain Foundation knows that when we find the cure to one brain disease, we will find cures to many others. Learn more about the brain disease research we fund, or donate today to support the cures and treatments of tomorrow.

We are honored and thrilled to announce the recipients of our newest Cure One, Cure Many Awards. These six researchers, their co-investigators, and their teams will conduct groundbreaking investigations to identify reliable biomarkers for Lewy body dementia and better understand the role of neuroinflammation across brain diseases.

 

The American Brain Foundation’s Cure One, Cure Many program supports significant research projects to study brain disease. The program provides large-scale, catalyst funding to the world’s top researchers who are pursuing the most innovative, cross-cutting approaches to finding diagnoses, treatments, and cures. Cure One, Cure Many Awards target research topics that cut across multiple disease areas and have the potential to improve the lives of millions of people around the world.

The Foundation is awarding Cure One, Cure Many Awards in two areas this year: one to explore the role of neuroinflammation in brain disease and the other to improve diagnosis for Lewy body dementia. Totaling $7 million, these awards represent the largest grants ever distributed in the organization’s history. These awards also saw the highest number of applications in our history, with over 500 pre-proposals, confirming that there is both a great need for research funding and high interest in these scientific areas.

Please join us in congratulating these brilliant researchers, who will greatly advance scientific knowledge and help lead the way to improved outcomes for patients.

Neuroinflammation describes the brain’s immune response, and it plays a role in more than 600 known brain diseases. Complex changes in this response are central to nearly every major pediatric, adult, and geriatric neurological and neuropsychiatric disorder. And yet, neuroinflammation itself has been an understudied topic in brain disease research.

We were honored to receive more applications for the awards in neuroinflammation than any previous American Brain Foundation research grant opportunity. This record-breaking response came at a critical time for research funding, as the U.S. federal government heavily cut budgets of agencies such as the National Institutes of Health. But it also demonstrated how strongly the topic of neuroinflammation resonated with researchers.

Insights into neuroinflammation’s role in brain health will allow scientists and clinicians to more precisely target diseases as different as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, ALS, encephalitis, and COVID-19-associated brain disease. This work promises to transform the future of brain health by unlocking possibilities for early detection and innovative new therapies.

We are deeply grateful to American Brain Foundation donors for supporting these awards, as well as our funding partners: the National MS Society, Gates Ventures, NFL Players Association, Genentech, and WoodNext Foundation.

Breakthrough Awards ($2 Million Each)

Ryan Dhindsa, MD, PhD

Dr. Dhindsa and his team, based at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas, will leverage AI to analyze millions of gigabytes of data and identify human genetic variations that increase the risk of virally triggered Alzheimer’s disease and neuroinflammation. These studies could enable new antiviral and vaccination strategies to treat Alzheimer’s.

Dr. Dhindsa will also work with teams led by Artem Babaian, PhD, at the University of Toronto and Caleb Lareau, PhD, at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.

David Rowitch, MD, PhD

Based at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, in Los Angeles, California, Dr. Rowitch and his team will study neuroinflammation and its role in multiple sclerosis, particularly regarding neurons that express the genetic marker CUX2. They will identify pathways for clinical intervention and develop approaches to enhance DNA repair after damage from neuroinflammation.

Dr. Rowitch will work with teams led by Stephen Fancy, PhD, DVM, at the University of California, San Francisco and Gabriel Balmus, PhD, at the University of Cambridge.

Catalyst Awards ($500,000 Each)

Mariko Bennett, MD, PhD

Dr. Bennett and her team at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia in Pennsylvania will coordinate three different laboratories to study the neuroimmune mechanism of how microglia—the brain’s immune cells, which trigger neuroinflammation—transition into an early form called ISGMs (interferon-stimulated gene-expressing microglia). This could lead to new therapies that replace and engineer microglia to treat potentially hundreds of brain diseases. 

Dr. Bennett will also work with teams led by Michael Haney, PhD, and Frederick “Chris” Bennett, MD, at the University of Pennsylvania. 

Caghan Kizil, PHD

Dr. Kizil and his team at Columbia University Medical Center in New York City will develop a first-in-class precision therapy that targets accumulation of the protein fibronectin and subsequent neuroinflammation at its source before irreversible damage and cognitive decline occur. This therapy could offer safer, genetically informed, and personalized treatment options for patients carrying the APOE-ε4 allele, which is the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. 

Dr. Kizil will also work with teams led by Badri Vardarajan, PhD, and Richard Mayeux, MD, at Columbia University.  

Lewy body dementia (LBD) is the most common form of dementia after Alzheimer’s disease, but currently it can only be definitively diagnosed with a brain autopsy after death. This award is intended to change that. It funds research to discover, validate, and accelerate biomarkers for LBD, so that it can be diagnosed in living patients.

The two recipients of this year’s Cure One, Cure Many Awards in Lewy Body Dementia join the ranks of Drs. Owen A. Ross, Pamela J. McLean, and Bradley F. Boeve of Mayo Clinic and their co-investigators at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of North Texas, who received our first Cure One, Cure Many Award in LBD in 2022. Their teams have made some exciting progress, as detailed in our recent report, by focusing on nanoparticles called extracellular vesicles (EVs). They are using a specialized sorting method and machine learning to identify brain-specific EVs linked to Alzheimer’s disease and Lewy body dementia. This will help to differentiate the two types of dementia and develop a model to predict how LBD evolves. Their approach has led to results that could be used to develop biomarkers. The next step would be to validate and expand their study to broader and more diverse patient populations.

The two new recipients of the LBD Award are focusing on proteins. Their work, and the work of the 2022 recipients, will lead to insight that will enhance our understanding of LBD and related conditions like Parkinson’s disease.

We are sincerely grateful to American Brain Foundation donors and our funding partners: the Alzheimer’s Association and The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research.

Cure One, Cure Many Awards in Lewy Body Dementia ($1 Million Each)

Lenora Higginbotham, MD

Based at Emory University, in Atlanta, Georgia, Dr. Higginbotham and her team will employ machine-learning processes to make a comprehensive study of proteins in LBD plasma samples. This will help scientists better understand individual variability in LBD, and thereby help to improve precision in diagnosis, prediction, and treatment. Dr. Higginbotham was also a recipient of an American Brain Foundation Next Generation Research Grant for LBD in 2020. 

Dr. Higginbotham will work with a team led by Nicholas Seyfried, PhD, at Emory University.  

Alice Chen-Plotkin, MD

Working at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Dr. Chen-Plotkin and her team have developed two prototype tests for detecting elements of LBD, including measuring accumulations of alpha-synuclein proteins in in biofluids. This research could help in the development of blood-based biomarkers for the disease. Dr. Chen-Plotkin was also a recipient of an American Brain Foundation Next Generation Research Grant for ALS in 2008 and currently serves on the Foundation’s Research Advisory Committee. 

Dr. Chen-Plotkin will work with teams led by Kelvin Luk, PhD and George Kannarkat, MD, PhD at the University of Pennsylvania, Miranda Lim, MD, PhD, at Oregon Health and Science University, and David Walt, PhD, at Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School. 

We are excited and hopeful for the progress these researchers will make to bring medical science closer to better treatments, preventions, and cures. 

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Traditionally, neurology and psychology have been treated as separate scientific disciplines, one focusing on the physical brain and the other focusing on the mind and behavior. However, there is a great deal of overlap between these disciplines, and there are good arguments for brain health to incorporate both neurological and psychological perspectives.

 

The American Brain Foundation was originally established in 1992 to fund research into conditions that have a clearly observable effect on the brain as a physical organ of the nervous system—neurological diseases and disorders. This emphasis continues to be an important part of finding cures and helping patients live healthier lives, but the psychological aspects of brain health should not be overlooked. In fact, many brain conditions can be treated with a combination of both neurology and psychology, and in such cases, patients can experience improved health outcomes. A specific example of this overlap of scientific disciplines is neuropsychology, a field that works to understand the relationship between physical brain function and the psychological experiences of behavior, thinking, memory, and emotions.

Physical brain conditions often cause psychological symptoms, and psychological conditions can affect the physical brain. As the physical brain and psychological mind share the same space, they can often complement each other therapeutically. From a patient perspective, in some cases, treatment that only focuses on the biological aspects of brain health may not be sufficient to improve their well-being, as they may also need to develop or regain positive mental health skills, adjust to social situations, or practice positive coping strategies. Conversely, sometimes psychological interventions are insufficient to treat conditions that have a biological dimension. There is both room and necessity for these two disciplines to exist as parts of a holistic view of brain science and medicine.

Here at the American Brain Foundation, we call a perspective that values psychology as well as neurology a total brain approach. Going forward, we plan to feature more content that speaks to the psychological effects of brain conditions. For example, we recently added schizophrenia to our online index of Brain Diseases from A to Z, and over time we’ll be adding further entries for conditions that traditionally have been categorized as psychological disorders. Schizophrenia is a serious mental health concern that directly affects more than 1 in 100 people. It can be extremely debilitating, often causing hallucinations and delusions that can seem terrifyingly real, as well as severe depression and social isolation that can lead to a high risk of suicide.

Schizophrenia has observable physical effects on the brain, notably a reduction in overall gray matter and a significant disruption of neural connections. Many people can live with the disorder by treating the symptoms with medication, but the actual biological causes of this condition are not yet fully understood. Currently, scientists know that 80 percent of the risk for the condition is likely due to a genetic family history, but traumatic brain injury (TBI) can also increase a person’s risk of developing schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. We hope that researchers will one day identify the precise physical causes for all mental health conditions. Whether they’re caused by issues with gene expression, neurotransmitter levels, brain development, the immune response, or other biological origins, discovering how they form will help researchers develop more targeted treatments. In the meantime, many people who live with mental health disorders such as schizophrenia depend on the important work of psychologists and psychiatrists to help them live safer, healthier, and happier lives.

While psychology has roots that go back centuries, as people in many cultures have tried to understand the mind, modern experimental psychology began in 19th century Germany. The field has been in a state of evolution ever since, and psychologists now directly help tens of millions of people annually. Neurology has substantially improved the effectiveness of psychology. It has enabled scientists to understand the biological mechanisms that cause many different diseases and disorders. It’s led to the development and refinement of psychiatric medications that treat these root causes. Neurologists have discovered that brain conditions that have psychological symptoms are sometimes the result of abnormalities in specific genes, and the growing field of gene therapy (including the use of technologies such as CRISPR gene editing) presents new possibilities to treat conditions that have been difficult or impossible to treat through psychology alone.

Neurology has led to improvements in diagnostics, and now medical professionals can determine if a person presents biological evidence of a disease or signs suggesting a disease will develop later. It’s also led to the development of technologies like electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and other types of neurostimulation, which can help patients safely control psychological conditions such as severe depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Oftentimes, treating underlying neurological problems like epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and stroke can help to alleviate psychological symptoms like depression and anxiety. Sometimes treating the physical cause of disease or disorder can be a first step, with psychological therapy as a second.

Psychology’s focus on the mind might seem somewhat abstract compared to neurology’s focus on biological mechanisms, but in fact, talk therapy’s focus on reframing thought patterns can lead to positive physical changes in the brain. That’s because of neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reconfigure the signaling connections between neurons. Neuroplasticity can help the brain physically recover after injury, but it also allows for healing emotional trauma and functioning of signaling between the brain and the rest of the body. Psychological approaches like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness, meditation, gratitude exercises, and visualization help “rewire” the brain, and these changes can help patients process traumatic memories or reduce the negative physical effects of stress. Neuroplasticity also helps to enhance the brain’s resilience to cognitive decline, which is why it can be so helpful for patients with dementia to keep their minds active with hobbies, continued learning, and social connections.

Reducing stress helps lower the risk of cerebrovascular conditions like stroke and aneurysms, or heart disease that can be a precursor for Alzheimer’s and dementia. Chronic stress can cause shrinking of the hippocampus, the brain’s memory center, so psychological techniques to treat stress can help protect against cognitive decline and memory loss. These methods also can help lower cortisol levels, reducing the intensity of the “fight or flight response,” and preventing these heightened states from leading to brain damage over time.

Much like how a holistic approach to funding research on multiple brain conditions can lead to insights that benefit the treatment of related conditions, an approach that treats the whole patient—both neurologically and psychologically—helps improve the overall therapeutic experience. It leads to more thorough and accurate diagnoses, more strategic and personalized treatments, and better outcomes, because it addresses both a root biological cause of a disease or disorder and the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of the symptoms. It helps to ensure that patients get the full amount of treatment they need to both recover from illness and have the support to live their best lives as individuals and members of communities. And while stigmas about mental health issues have declined over the years, patients sometimes find it helpful to know that psychological difficulties often have a biological basis.

Neurology and psychology are both valid approaches to treating brain conditions, and it’s likely that both will be increasingly considered valuable parts of coordinated healthcare strategies.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

This year, we are proud to announce fourteen new Next Generation Research Grant recipients. These brilliant scientists will each focus on a specific area of brain research, conducting studies that will provide foundational insight for new treatments, prevention, and cures. Their innovative approaches could have profound impact on multiple other brain conditions as well, advancing medical knowledge and improving both treatment outcomes and quality of life for all.

 

The American Brain Foundation’s Next Generation Research Grants program invests in some the world’s best and brightest researchers at an important juncture in their careers. Their projects show strong potential to increase scientific understanding of brain diseases and impact patients’ lives today and tomorrow. We are proud to partner with several other charitable organizations and all our passionate donors—at all levels—who make this work possible.

Please join us in congratulating the 2026 class of Next Generation Researchers! We look forward to reporting on the progress of their research and continuing to follow their work as they progress in their careers and become leaders in neuroscience.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Pavel Yanev, MD, PhD, will be searching for a scientific explanation as to why physical exercise can help prevent Alzheimer’s for some people but not others. He will integrate advanced neuroimaging, genetic analysis, and biological indicators to develop effective personalized prevention strategies. Co-funded by the Alzheimer’s Association.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Rebecca Casterton, PhD, will focus on changes to the cell cycles of neurons and how changes to these patterns could be relevant in treating a genetically inherited form of ALS, possibly with available cancer drugs. Chen Eitan, PhD, will use CRISPR gene editing, lab-grown neurons, and mouse models to explore ways to correct dysfunction of a protein called TDP43, which could lead to a new class of treatments addressing ALS at its root. Co-funded by The ALS Association.

Cognitive Aging and Age-Related Memory Loss

Maria Pia Campagna, PhD, will investigate the connections between early menopause (such as when it is induced through surgery to remove both ovaries), hormone therapy, and significantly increased dementia risk. Among other benefits, her work could lead to more accurate and customized recommendations for hormone therapy that reduce dementia risk. Quentin Devignes, PhD, will work to determine for the first time if amyloidosis (the process by which beta-amyloid proteins build up and cause neurodegeneration) plays a biological role in normal age-related memory loss as well. Funded by the McKnight Brain Research Foundation.

Dr. Campagna and her colleague, Riley Bove, MD, herself a 2013 Next Generation Research Grant Recipient, joined us in March for webinar about Menopause and the Brain. Watch the webinar or read the summary to learn more about what research has shown relating to hormonal shifts and brain health.

Epilepsy

Mark Bowren, PhD, will work to improve brain mapping for patients with epilepsy by using a technique called ultra-high frequency stimulation to temporarily pause signaling between brain regions. This insight has the potential to help make brain surgery safer for patients and improve their long-term quality of life. Co-funded by the American Epilepsy Society & the Epilepsy Foundation.

Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)

Jesús García-Castro, MD, will combine blood testing and MRI brain scans to develop improved diagnostical methods for detecting subtypes of FTD called progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal degeneration (CBD). Currently, both variants are difficult to diagnose in early stages because of symptoms that resemble other brain conditions. Co-funded by The Holloway Family Fund of the Association for Frontotemporal Degeneration.

Lewy Body Dementia (LBD)

Esteban Luna, MD, PhD, will explore if the decreased expression of the gene MPEG1 in the brain’s immune cells is associated with accumulations of the protein alpha-synuclein, which leads to conditions like LBD and Parkinson’s. If so, this could lead to new therapeutic approaches to treat these conditions. Co-funded by the Alzheimer’s Association.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Mark Milner, PhD, will study a specific kind of brain immune cell called disease-associated microglia (DAM), which are sometimes helpful and sometimes harmful. He will work to determine if genetically blocking these cells from forming later in the progression of MS could help the brain repair damaged connections and better heal itself. Funded by the Herbert R. Mayer and Jeanne C. Mayer Foundation.

Myasthenia Gravis

Alexandra Bayer Wildberger, PhD, will investigate the possible role of IgM, one of four types of antibodies, in acetylcholine receptor myasthenia gravis, on a molecular level. Her work could help uncover biomarkers for personalized therapeutic strategies to treat the condition. Co-funded by the Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America.

Parkinson’s Disease

Arjun Balachandar, MD, will use a brain-machine interface to search for specific “brain signatures” that appear before and during episodes of “freezing of gait,” an under-studied motor issue that occurs when Parkinson’s patients are unable to move their feet forward to walk. He then hopes to develop brain stimulation treatments to help patients regain their mobility. Co-funded by the Parkinson’s Foundation.

Peripheral Neuropathy

Christopher Cashman, MD, PhD, will study a specific type of genetically inherited peripheral neuropathy and determine what role damaged mitochondria might play in the disease. If a direct connection is proven, targeting damaged mitochondria could help treat the condition. Ariel Zhang, PhD, will explore the role of a protein called ATF2 in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) and investigate if reducing the protein can protect against this condition. If so, this could pave the way for the development of safer cancer treatments. Funded by The Foundation for Peripheral Neuropathy.

Stroke

Praneeta Konduri, PhD, will use advanced brain imaging and AI to better detect early brain injury and predict how much a stroke might grow during the time that a patient might be transported from one hospital to another. These methods could help doctors identify high-risk patients sooner, make more informed treatment decisions, design better emergency triage strategies, and improve patient outcomes. Co-funded by the American Heart Association.

To read more about each researcher’s project, please visit our 2026 Next Generation Research Grants page.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

The purpose and primary function of the American Brain Foundation is to raise and distribute money to fund brain research. We wanted to take a moment to explain more about the grants we provide to researchers and the groundbreaking science made possible by our donors.

 

The American Brain Foundation is a national nonprofit organization dedicated to the relentless pursuit of improved prevention, treatment, and cures for brain diseases, disorders, and injuries. There are many other outstanding charities specializing in specific conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease. We salute the great work of these organizations, and we are proud to partner with them on many of our research grants. But one thing that sets us apart is that we fund research across the whole spectrum of the brain.

Why this broad, holistic approach? It’s because we recognize that brain conditions are interconnected, just like the various regions and pathways in the brain itself. When research leads to insight into one condition, it often directly benefits another. And when a cure is discovered for one disease, that discovery has the potential to lead to cures for other related diseases. The benefits of brain research are cumulative, and our best chance of achieving our vision of life without brain disease is by funding as much high-quality research as possible, from many different angles. We call this philosophy “Cure one, cure many.”

Since 1992, the Foundation has distributed more than $50 million to researchers. This is a huge win for everyone in the world, because it helps get all of us closer to cures. We have committees of some of the most knowledgeable, brilliant, and caring neurologists and neuroscientists in the world who help identify research projects that have a strong likelihood of making a significant impact on brain disease. However, this important work is only possible through the generosity of donors.

We have two main ongoing grant initiatives, our Next Generation Research Grants and our Cure One, Cure Many Awards.

Every year, we welcome applications for our Next Generation Research Grants, awarded to the best and brightest early-career clinician-scientists focused on studying individual brain conditions. Last year, we awarded at least two full years of grant funding for each of our 11 selected recipients to carry out their own brilliant research projects. These innovative investigations are currently in progress, and the class of 2025 is exploring a variety of hypotheses related to ALD, ALS, cognitive aging and memory loss, epilepsy, FTD, muscular dystrophy, Parkinson’s disease, peripheral neuropathy, and stroke. Many of these grants are presented in collaboration with partner organizations focused on specific illnesses, and we are honored and grateful for their help in making this research possible.

Next Generation Research Grants are important for the field of neuroscience research, because they invest in scientific talent at a critical time in these scientists’ careers. The grants are typically limited to investigators who are pursuing an academic career in neurological research, and who have recently completed residency or a PhD prior to the beginning of the award. Receiving funding to carry out an original research project at this point in these scientists’ careers helps open doors for future opportunities that could be funded by federal agencies like the National Institutes of Health (NIH). While the federal government tragically opted to slash the budgets for medical research last year, traditionally, 98 percent of Next Generation Researchers have gone on to receive further research funding through the NIH. This goes to show the weight that these Next Generation grants can carry. They are a valuable investment in brilliant scientists who often go on to become global leaders in brain research.

But the career benefits for the researchers should not overshadow the fact that these funded studies are contributing valuable data to brain science right now. They’re exploring bold theories and using new technological approaches that have significant potential to lead to improved outcomes for patients. They’re also leading the way for further studies that will build on these insights. This approach is not simply one way to cure brain disease—it’s the only way.

And these incredible scientists are charting the course. Stay tuned, because next week we’ll be announcing our 14 grant recipients for 2026!\

The Cure One, Cure Many program is a separate grant initiative that provides large-scale, catalyst funding for research projects that cut across multiple disease areas. Offered periodically rather than annually, these awards support a small number of high-impact projects identified by our Research Advisory Committee and Board of Directors as priority targets in brain health.

The 2022 Cure One, Cure Many Award focused on improving diagnosis for Lewy body dementia (LBD). This is the second-most common form of dementia after Alzheimer’s disease, but currently it can only be definitively diagnosed in a post-mortem brain autopsy. Finding and validating definitive biomarkers to detect LBD in living patients would enable care providers to develop treatment strategies and perhaps pave the way for a future cure. Funded in partnership with the Alzheimer’s Association, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, and the American Academy of Neurology, this initiative is the organization’s first multimillion-dollar award. This research has already had some success, as grant recipients Owen A. Ross, PhD, Pamela J. McLean, PhD, and Bradley F. Boeve, MD of Mayo Clinic have made discoveries to differentiate LBD from Alzheimer’s, based on their study of nanoparticles called extracellular vesicles and traceable genetic “signatures” in miRNA. Next month, we’ll be announcing a second round of grant recipients for this award.

Our latest award, in neuroinflammation, attracted 500 applications, the largest number we’ve ever received for a grant opportunity. Interest in this topic is strong because there are more than 600 known brain diseases, and complex changes in the brain’s inflammatory response play a role in nearly all of them. Insights into neuroinflammation’s role in brain health will allow us to more precisely target diseases as different as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, ALS, encephalitis, and COVID-19-associated brain disease. This, in turn, could lead to earlier detection and innovative new therapies. This multimillion-dollar award, in partnership with the National MS Society, Gates Ventures, Genentech, the NFL Players Association, WoodNext Foundation, and the American Academy of Neurology, will be divided among a limited number of brilliant research projects, to be announced next month. We’re so excited about what these researchers will discover!

Every grant that we distribute to researchers is made possible entirely by independent donors. These donors include philanthropists, foundations, corporate giving officers, and practicing neurologists, but also individuals who simply want to join in the effort to end the scourge of brain disease. Often, our donors have experienced or seen firsthand the hardship and misery that brain conditions can cause. Perhaps they’ve lost a loved one to a neurodegenerative disease like ALS or dementia, or they have a child who has struggled with a condition like muscular dystrophy or epilepsy. Or they themselves suffer from recurring migraine. Or they simply believe, like we do, that everyone deserves to live free of brain disease.

If you’re already an American Brain Foundation donor, we thank you so much for supporting our research grants. If you haven’t yet contributed, or if you would like to do more to help launch additional brain research, there are many ways to get involved. You can make a one-time donation, become a recurring donor, see if your employer will match your gift, or make tax-advantaged gifts of stock. Or, if you can’t contribute much personally, we have some helpful guidance and resources for starting your own fundraising activities, whether in tribute to someone you care about or as a group activity for a good cause.

Better treatments, prevention, and cures will be found—but only through a sustaining commitment to funding research, giving more people the chance to live longer, fuller, and healthier lives.

 

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Early intervention can make a positive difference for people with dementia, so it’s important to know how to recognize the early signs and symptoms. By seeking professional care early, you can help those you care about live better, safer, and healthier lives.

 

Scientists, including researchers funded by American Brain Foundation donors, are working hard to better understand, prevent, and treat dementia, but for the time being, it remains tragically prevalent. Each year, more than 10 million people, primarily older adults, are newly diagnosed with dementia. Dementia is defined as a progressive loss of memory and other cognitive abilities, with a more significant decline than would be seen with natural aging. Many types of dementia (such as Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia are the result of neurodegeneration—a process that causes an increasing number of brain cells to die sooner than their expected life cycle.

For those who have dementia, life tends to become increasingly difficult and confusing. As neurons die, the connections between them are lost. Eventually, this will cause the individual to experience symptoms including memory loss and cognitive impairment. But we now know that dementia begins long before symptoms appear. This is one reason why it’s important to speak with a healthcare professional as soon as possible if loved ones are experiencing early signs that could be indicative of the condition. Even if these symptoms seem mild, speaking with a provider early on could make a significant difference in terms of reducing the severity of the condition over the long term.

1. Short term memory loss. Memory is one of the first cognitive functions affected by dementia, especially Alzheimer’s disease, and forgetting recently learned information is one of the most common early symptoms. While being forgetful isn’t necessarily indicative of dementia, if loved ones start to regularly forget things like names or appointments, how to get to a regularly visited destination, or whether they took prescribed medication that day, or if they start repeating things they’ve said, including questions you’ve already answered, these could be signs of declining short-term memory. An increasing reliance on reminder notes or other memory aids could also be a sign.
2. Increasing trouble finding the right words. If you notice your loved ones having increasing difficulty remembering words, stopping conversation in the middle of sentences, or having trouble naming familiar objects or people, these speech problems may indicate early cognitive decline. People in the early stages of dementia might also start to have new difficulties following or joining conversations.
3. Trouble with multitasking, making plans, and using numbers. You might notice loved ones having new difficulties with executive functions like developing and adhering to plans. For example, they might start having trouble cooking from a recipe or following instructions. Additionally, they might start to struggle with concentration and take longer to complete tasks than they did before.
4. Changes in mood or personality. One common and early sign of Alzheimer’s disease that is often overlooked is a change in mood, such as increased anxiety, depression, confusion, suspicion, fear, and irritability. Loved ones might seem to have a personality that’s different from what you’re used to; for example, they might become easily upset with you or other family and friends, either at home or when they’re outside of their normal comfort zone. They may develop very specific ways of doing things and become irritated by disruptions to their routine. They may have a sudden loss of interest in social connections with family, friends, and colleagues, and may avoid social events. They could be more aggressive or more shy, more hesitant or more impulsive.
5. Financial issues. A related issue is that dementia makes it more difficult to manage personal finances and you might notice loved ones having newfound challenges keeping up with monthly bills. They might also spend money irregularly, buying items they already own or don’t need, and they may make more calculation errors when doing financial math. Unfortunately, dementia can also cause people to be more susceptible to financial scams. Though it’s true that scams are becoming more and more sophisticated, dementia directly affects the brain’s decision-making abilities, which can lead to poor judgment and make older adults easy prey for scammers.
6. Confusion with time and place. Loved ones may start losing track of the passage of time, including days of the week, specific dates, and changing seasons. Disruptions to circadian rhythms can cause increasing confusion, distress, and restless agitation, especially as daylight fades in late afternoon or evening (this is known as the “sundowning” effect). Dementia can also cause people to become disoriented by their surroundings, even in familiar locations.
7. Sleep and appetite changes. People with dementia often experience changes to sleeping patterns. Daytime napping becomes more common, leading to confusion and low energy later, after they wake up. Sleep disruptions at night are also common, including frequent waking and insomnia.
8. New visual and spatial challenges. Some people affected by dementia can experience vision changes that affect their ability to judge distances, maintain balance, and navigate stairs safely. They might also have increased trouble with reading and determining color and contrast, which can negatively affect their ability to drive.

If you recognize that loved ones are experiencing the early symptoms of dementia, a health care provider can provide treatment, help you understand the condition, and share strategies to slow its progression or keep symptoms in check. You can make an important difference for your loved ones facing a diagnosis by helping them to develop good habits that reduce confusion and disorientation, improve their safety, and contribute to happier, healthier lives.

Your help as a caregiver is important and priceless. It can be very rewarding, but it is also a commitment. Most likely, it is or will be difficult sometimes, and it can take a great deal of physical and emotional energy. National Caregivers Day is celebrated on the third Friday of February. The annual observance recognizes professional health aids, nurses, medical assistants, and others who work in long-term care facilities, hospices, and homes, but more broadly, it also honors individuals who provide care for their relatives and acquaintances. Given the global prevalence of conditions that affect the brain and nervous system more than one in three people live with a brain disease), it’s likely that if you may need to provide support for someone with a neurologic issue, if you don’t already, and you may need such support at some point in your own life.

Strong collective investment in brain research now will make an enormous difference for people in the future, and an increased commitment to this goal will bring better treatment, prevention, and possibly cures closer to people in the present. Dementia is literally devastating, and the more we learn about it, the better we can respond. In the meantime, knowing how to recognize early signs and symptoms can go a long way toward prolonging and improving the quality of life for the people you love.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

MINNEAPOLIS (February 9, 2026)—The American Brain Foundation, which supports a network of leading scientists and researchers working to unlock breakthroughs in whole-brain health, has appointed Selma Blair as its Global Ambassador and National Chair for Brain Health Advancement. 

Blair is an iconic actress, author, and advocate whose impact spans film, television, fashion, and activism. Known for unforgettable roles in Cruel Intentions, Legally Blonde, The Sweetest Thing, and Hellboy, she has also starred in acclaimed films like Storytelling and A Dirty Shame. On TV, she portrayed Kris Jenner in The People vs. O.J. Simpson and has appeared in numerous other series. 

In 2018, Blair publicly shared her diagnosis with multiple sclerosis (MS), becoming a fearless voice for brain disease awareness. 

MS is a brain disease that affects more than 1 million people in the United States. The disease interrupts the communication between the brain and the body and causes muscle weakness, fatigue, and balance problems.  

“My journey with MS has deepened my awareness of the extraordinary work being done by researchers who are helping all of us better understand how the brain works,” Blair said. “Through the American Brain Foundation, I’ve learned just how critical it is that brain research continues without interruption. The Foundation’s commitment to curing one condition on the road to curing many gives me tremendous hope, and I am truly honored to serve as its Global Ambassador and National Chair for Brain Health Advancement.” 

Blair’s ambassador announcement comes in advance of the American Brain Foundation’s Cure One, Cure Many Awards, which provide large-scale, catalyst funding to leading researchers pursuing innovative, cross-disciplinary approaches to understanding, diagnosing, treating, and curing brain disease. In 2026, the focus is neuroinflammation, an immune system response that disrupts normal brain function and is a common feature across hundreds of brain disorders, including migraine, depression and anxiety, Alzheimer’s, MS, Parkinson’s, traumatic brain injury, and more. Advancing our understanding of neuroinflammation has the potential to unlock new insights and therapeutic approaches across many diseases at once. 

The American Brain Foundation also invests in the future of neuroscience through its Next Generation Research Grants, which fund early-career scientists at the start of their independent research paths. This program is designed to identify and support promising young investigators who will dedicate their careers to advancing brain research. 

“Selma’s courage and authenticity have changed how people see brain disease,” said Michelle Heritage, Executive Director of the American Brain Foundation. “Her voice helps shine a light on the urgent need for research that looks at the shared mechanisms behind many conditions while also inspiring the next generation of scientists working to find answers. We are honored to welcome her as a partner in advancing brain health for everyone.” 

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About the American Brain Foundation 

The American Brain Foundation invests in bold, interdisciplinary brain research and supports promising early-career scientists to advance brain health for everyone. 

About Selma Blair 

Selma Blair is an iconic actress, author, and advocate whose impact spans film, television, fashion, and activism. Known for unforgettable roles in Cruel Intentions, Legally Blonde, The Sweetest Thing, and Hellboy, she has also starred in acclaimed films like Storytelling and A Dirty Shame. On TV, she portrayed Kris Jenner in The People vs. O.J. Simpson and has appeared in numerous other series. In 2018, she publicly shared her diagnosis with multiple sclerosis, becoming a fearless voice for disability awareness. Her journey was captured in the award-winning documentary Introducing, Selma Blair, and her bestselling memoir Mean Baby earned widespread praise. She has been honored by TIME magazine, Glamour, and The Hollywood Reporter, and in 2022 the state of California named her Woman of the Year. In 2025, her hometown of Southfield, Michigan, declared May 16 “Selma Blair Day.” Blair continues to create, inspire, and lead with authenticity and strength. 

For more information, contact: 

Kylee Siaw
[email protected] 

When the brain suffers an injury, it tries to heal itself, using an ability called neuroplasticity. This refers to the way neurons’ signaling pathways are “rewired” to reconnect injured regions or find detours to restore brain function. While the brain can’t always fully recover from every possible injury, its capacity and mechanism to heal after concussions, traumatic brain injury, aneurysms, strokes, and damage from diseases like an infection are truly remarkable.

Brain tissue can be damaged in various ways, among them injuries from blunt impacts to the head, such as from falls, accidents, or collisions in sports and recreational activities. These impacts cause the brain to be jostled back and forth inside the skull, disrupting functions like memory and orientation. The severity of such injuries can vary, from a mild concussion to a traumatic brain injury (TBI), which can have significant long-lasting effects or even lead to permanent disability.

A TBI could involve a fracture of the skull (referred to as an open or penetrating brain injury) or loss of consciousness, but even without these aspects, there will be significant damage to at least one area of the brain. This could be in the form of bruising or tearing of tissue and blood vessels, and the damage causes some brain cells to die.

Typically, for a day or two after a TBI or other injury, cells will continue to die. But then, something amazing happens. The injured brain shifts into an excitatory phase called synaptogenesis, stimulating new neurons and connections to form, while other cells repair the tissue damage. After a few weeks, the axons, or nerve endings, of the neurons grow, forming new connections.

As the brain is working on regenerating cells, it tries to restore its neural connections and maintain critical functions. This process, called neuroplasticity, allows for the adaptive “rewiring” of the brain’s circuitry, the connections between neurons. Neuroplasticity helps to compensate for damaged or lost neurons by instigating structural reorganization of the pathways used for sending electrical impulses.

Effectively, the brain attempts to reroute and find or create detours for those signaling pathways. The brain makes changes at various levels, affecting signaling molecules, synapses (the spaces between nerve cells), and cells, and these changes can spread widely across the brain’s overall neural network. This approach to repair occurs in both white and gray matter, the two main types of brain tissue.

The brain was once assumed to be a static organ that didn’t change much once it reached full adult development. But neuroplasticity shows that it’s dynamic and adaptive, with the ability to reconfigure itself as it heals.

This also helps explain why each brain injury is unique. When concussions occur, for example after a car accident or a rough tackle in football, therapists conduct detailed patient evaluations and interviews to understand the nature of the injury and design an appropriate intervention or treatment. The general map of brain regions and their individual functions is essentially the same from person to person, but injuries show that there’s also quite a lot of individual variability. Researchers have found that brain injuries that have the same cause, that result from the same amount of force and intensity of impact, and that affect the same exact regions, can lead to very different symptoms in different people.

Human brains take a while to reach a fully developed state, often by the time people reach their early to mid-20s, but not always. However, neuroplasticity continues well beyond this point. Because this “remapping” of signaling pathways happens even after injuries that tend to occur later in life, such as strokes, there might be no specific point at which the brain loses its ability to restore internal connections.

Having a fuller density of brain cells creates a buffer called cognitive reserve, which protects the brain against damage from injury and aging. Having higher baseline levels of cognitive reserve has been linked to genetics and other health factors but also to education and neuroplasticity. If fact, neuroplasticity is a crucial part of our ability to learn and accumulate knowledge. Every time we learn something new, our neurons rearrange or develop new signaling pathways. This helps increase brain cell density and support brain health. It’s one of many benefits of being a lifelong learner.

When the brain is healing, its immune system is at work as well. For example, if a person experiences a bacterial infection like meningitis, the immune cells of the brain go to work trying to fight off the invading pathogen. And just like the immune response to infection or injury in other parts of the body, this causes inflammation, which has side effects including temporary changes in mental and emotional processes, such as thinking, concentration, behavior, mood, physical energy, and motivation.

Neuroinflammation and neuroplasticity share a complicated relationship. While both have roles in healing the brain, inflammation can have a negative effect on the brain’s ability to restructure signaling pathways. This effect is especially significant if the inflammation becomes chronic. Chronic neuroinflammation occurs when the brain’s immune cells (called microglia and astrocytes) remain active longer than they should. In some cases, these cells can act on the wrong targets and may begin attacking healthy tissue rather than repairing damaged areas. A recent study suggests that anti-inflammatory treatments (as well as personalized treatments based on specific genes that help predict TBI severity) could help boost neuroplasticity and improve recovery after injury.

While the brain’s ability to heal itself from injury is impressive, the best course of action is to try to prevent damage from occurring in the first place. Take active steps to minimize your risk of head injuries as much as possible. Taking simple, commonsense precautions makes a big difference. Always wear a seatbelt every time you drive or ride in a motor vehicle. Try to prevent slips and falls in your home environment by keeping rugs secure. Use handrails when climbing or descending staircases. If you work in a potentially dangerous environment like a construction site or a factory where items could fall from above, always wear a hard hat as mandated by workplace safety instructions. Make sure that any children under your care understand safety rules and wear appropriate protection.

As attention turns to the Super Bowl this time of year, it’s a good time to remember that helmets are always appropriate for contact sports. We are seeing redesigns of helmets that significantly improve safety and can better protect against concussions and TBI and help prevent chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a serious neurodegenerative disorder that can result from repeated head injuries. As athletes are increasingly focused on the science of preventing serious brain injury, helmets are becoming standard attire in many sports and recreational activities, and it is now common to see head protection worn for rock climbing, kayaking, horseback riding, skiing, and snowboarding.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Many diseases are caused by a flaw in genes, or the pieces of DNA that pass heredity from parent to child and collectively contain the “blueprints” for each individual person. Because genes are a foundational part of DNA, genetic diseases have been very difficult to treat. Gene therapy is an evolving approach that seeks to repair, strengthen, or replace sections of genetic code.

 

How Genes Can Cause Disease

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a structure of molecules in the cells of all living things, including humans. Each complete strand of human DNA contains the entire human genome, a long sequence of about 3.1 billion pairs of chemical units called nucleotides. Within that sequence, there are individual sections called genes. There are about 19,000 to 20,000 genes that provide the code to produce proteins, which are chains of amino acids that the body uses for a wide variety of functions including DNA replication, giving structure to cells, directing metabolic reactions between chemicals, transporting molecules, and so on.

However, sometimes a gene can have a problem in its sequence, such as a missing nucleotide pair or a repetition. This anomaly is called a mutation. A mutation causes the gene to produce proteins that don’t work as they should, or it prevents the gene from making proteins at all. Because genes are hereditary, individuals with a genetic mutation have a chance of passing on that mutation to their biological children or future descendants.

A genetic mutation can cause a person to have a genetic disorder from birth. This can take the form of a disease or a developmental issue. There are several brain diseases that are genetic and can be inherited. For example:

• Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)
• Adult-Onset Leukoencephalopathy with Axonal Spheroids and Pigmented Glia (ALSP)
• Angelman syndrome
• Batten disease
• CADASIL
• Cavernoma (in about 20% of cases)
• Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies
• Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD)
• Epilepsy (in about 40% of cases)
• Hereditary ALS
• Hereditary spastic paraplegias
• Huntington’s disease
• Kennedy’s disease
• Schizophrenia (in about 70-80% of cases)
• Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
• Spinocerebellar and Friedrich’s ataxia
• Tourette syndrome

It should also be noted that there are many brain conditions for which genetics can be a risk factor, such as dementia, dyslexia, dystonia, migraine, moyamoya disease, peripheral neuropathy, and schizencephaly. In addition, there are genetic conditions that affect other parts of the body, including cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, hypothyroidism, sickle cell disease, and thalassemia, and some that have a neurologic component. Down syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU), spina bifida, trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome).

Pregnancy care at hospitals includes optional prenatal genetic testing that can be done between 10 and 22 weeks of gestation. Additionally, a genetic screening is performed within 24 to 48 hours after birth, usually before hospital discharge, using a few drops of the newborn’s blood. This is a crucial part of assessing the child’s health, and it’s mandatory in the United States, though the exact number and variety of diseases screened for varies by state. If this screening detects a genetic, metabolic, or hormonal condition, treatments can often begin before symptoms develop.

How Gene Therapy Works

Gene therapies are approaches to treating genetic disorders by providing new DNA to cells or changing DNA. There are two main types of gene therapies: gene transfer and gene editing.

Gene transfer, also called gene addition, works by adding new genetic code to the DNA of certain cells. This added section of genetic code serves as a new gene, and restores the missing function of a defective, mutated, or missing gene in the DNA sequence. The new gene could be a properly functioning version of the faulty gene, or it could be a different gene that improves cellular processes in another way.

Gene editing is a newer and more targeted approach to changing DNA. It can be used to remove a section of DNA that causes disease, prevent a gene from making a harmful protein, make an inactive gene start making more of a needed protein, or correct a mutation.

Until very recently, these techniques have been performed ex vivo (outside the body). Cells are extracted, their DNA is modified, and then they are reimplanted into the patient. In both types of gene therapy, the corrected DNA can then replicate and spread, effectively treating the disease. To treat sickle cell disease and blood cancers, doctors must perform a blood and bone marrow transplant using altered stem cells.

In both types of therapy, a vector is needed to deliver the correct genetic component to the DNA inside cells. Scientists have found that an effective way to do this is by using viruses. Yes, that’s right: they inject a patient with viruses on purpose, to spread genetic material to cells. However, the viruses used have been genetically modified to remove the sequences that cause disease, and instead they carry the new gene or sequence, which gets added to the patient’s DNA.

In gene transfer, a new gene is transported by the benign virus to a cell nucleus, where it can start making healthy proteins. In gene editing, the virus is also packed with three types of ingredients that serve different functions. One is a scissor-like protein designed to cut the DNA strand, another is a guide molecule that brings the scissor protein to the right location, and a third is section of “template” DNA, which serves as a blueprint that helps rebuild the DNA in a healthy way.

Gene therapy is still a relatively new approach to treating diseases, often limited to child patients, and there are still some considerable risks that must be carefully considered, especially in cases where bone marrow transplants are necessary. Such treatments could potentially cause cells to become cancerous, or they could damage organs or tissues, lead to graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD) or severe infections, negatively affect fertility later in life, or trigger allergic reactions. Recent advances have improved safety considerably, but it’s crucial to discuss the current challenges and limitations of gene therapy with providers.

Treating Brain Disease with Gene Therapy

As of this writing, gene therapies have been developed or the following brain diseases:

• Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
• Metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD)
• Cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy (cALD)
• Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
• Hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) – SOD1 pathogenic variant only

Gene therapy is also available for a rare neurologic disorder called aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency, but so far this treatment is only approved to be performed in the European Union and the United Kingdom.

While gene therapy offers new hope for many patients, these treatments are typically extremely expensive and currently only available to patients who meet certain specific eligibility requirements, which vary by disease. Further research and clinical trials could lead to improvements that expand these or similar therapies to more children and potentially older patients.

Several companies are creating better methods of delivering gene therapy without viruses, and gene-editing tools are improving. CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) gene editing provides an extremely precise approach to modifying DNA. Furthermore, it can be done in vivo, meaning directly inside the patient’s body, rather than requiring extraction of DNA for external modification. Over the last decade, progress toward developing CRISPR-based treatments has been astonishing, and this approach has been approved for treating sickle cell disease and beta thalassemia. The website CRISPR Medicine News has an online tracker for CRISPR clinical trials in progress.

Whether they affect the brain or other parts of the body, genetic disorders are among the cruelest injustices in human health. These congenital conditions have caused enormous suffering throughout history, and until relatively recently, they’ve been considered largely untreatable because they’re based on a person’s inherited genetics. Gene therapy is a remarkable scientific development that challenges this idea, and it’s already helping patients and providing hope to millions. This field will continue to grow and lead to more treatments for brain-related genetic disorders, but progress depends on continued funding and advocacy for research.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

Research papers are written for a scientific audience, so often they can be difficult for non-scientists to understand and interpret. News stories about recent discoveries and developments in brain research frequently link back to journal articles, and reviewing these studies yourself can help you further understand the findings and verify that they’re not being misconstrued. Here, we offer some guidance on how to approach and evaluate research articles.

 

Why You Should Read Research Studies

Research is conducted for the purpose of gathering data according to the scientific method. What researchers record about their studies can lead to advancements in human understanding by establishing verifiable facts. When a study is done, the researchers write an article about their methods (what they did), findings (what they found), and conclusions (why it matters). This is submitted for publication in scientific journals. Before the article is published, it’s reviewed by other experts to evaluate its methods, accuracy, and merit. This stage is called peer review. Because of this thorough attention to methods, data recording, and publication standards, research studies are frequently cited in the media, in politics, and in court, as reliable sources of truth.

 

science requires repeated validation of results, and it takes time to get from hypothesis to discovery to available treatment.

 

Most of the time, this system works well. But today, information spreads fast. Studies can be both unintentionally misunderstood and, in some cases, cherry-picked for incomplete data to support a biased perspective. When you see a news story about a recent scientific discovery, it’s a good idea to look at the original study if you can. Even if you thoroughly trust a particular media outlet, reading the study yourself can give you a clearer, fuller picture. It can also be fascinating and insightful, and can help you better understand the topic. Especially in the age of “doing your own research,” it is incredibly important to be able to understand what the research actually says.

That said, research articles can be hard to read. They use technical terms that can feel complex for most people. For specific terms, it can be helpful to refer to a scientific dictionary, such as McGraw Hill’s Access Science. Generally speaking, the authors are writing for experts in their topic, so even other scientists might struggle to understand a research study if it’s not in their own field. But you don’t need to understand every detail. Once you learn the basic layout of a research article, it is easier to follow what its authors are saying. If you grasp the general approach of standard journal articles, you should be able to get the gist of what was researched, when, where, how, and why.

A Helpful Method for Reading

Johns Hopkins University’s Bloomberg School of Public Health has shared some excellent guidelines for reading and understanding complex research studies. These strategies should prove helpful for reading studies referred to in news about brain research discoveries, even if words like oligodendrocyte trigger flashbacks to a spelling-bee panic attack.

First, author Aliza Rosen gives guidance on how to find and access a journal article. Online media has the advantage of being able to link directly to the published studies, allowing interested audiences to review the source and get more information about how the research was conducted, what the findings were, and how conclusions were drawn. Podcasts that reference research studies sometimes include that information in the show’s episode notes or make that information available on request. Social media posts might share links or reference information for studies in their caption sections. Some journals require paid subscriptions to access articles, but others are free for anyone to read. If the articles are paywalled, readers can usually at least see the abstracts, or summaries, which are usually about 150 to 250 words. University students and employees are often able to access subscription-only journal articles through the school’s library, but otherwise the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed website is an excellent resource for finding freely accessible health-related research studies.

Second, Rosen credits professor Emily S. Gurley, PhD, MPH, with a four-step process for reviewing a research paper section by section. This guidance should be applicable to almost any study, because journal articles generally follow a worldwide standard format.

Skim the Abstract

The abstract gives a summary of the study, based on what the authors choose to highlight. Even these summaries can be very technical and may be difficult for nonscientists to interpret, but they provide a preview of what the full article covers. If a journal article is behind a paywall, the abstract is usually made available to read, so you can get a sense of what the study covers and decide if you want to pay to access the full paper.

Read the Introduction

The introduction is the section that gives context to the study. The authors share what has already been discovered in previous research studies on the same topic and explain how their own study is different. It might expand the investigation to a larger, more diverse collection of samples or participants, or it might present a new hypothesis that builds upon previous research findings. (Previous research that’s foundational to a new study should be listed in the References section.) The last couple sentences of the introduction should identify the precise objective of the study and the specific questions that the authors wanted to answer.

Review the Results, Discussion, and Conclusion Sections

The Results section of the article will detail what the researchers found in their investigation. It will include comprehensive data recording what they observed, usually presented in tables and figures. All these numbers and statistics might feel overwhelming at first, but the subsequent Discussion section translates these findings into text and explains what they mean.

The first and last paragraphs of the Discussion section typically provide the highlights of the Results section, and the other paragraphs provide further comparison and context, expounding upon what the results might suggest for the topic in question. For example, in brain research, this section might clarify how the collected data could benefit potential future treatments of a disease, disorder, or injury.

Journal articles often have an additional Conclusion (or Analysis) section, providing further explanation of the study’s findings and summing up how this information could be useful.

 

One important thing to remember about research study conclusions is the difference between correlation and causaTION.

 

Understand the Limitations of the Study

In either the Discussion or Conclusion section, or even a dedicated “Limitations” section, the authors should acknowledge the known limitations of the study. They will note any important caveats about their own conclusions and explain what can and cannot be ascertained from the results of the study on its own. For example, the study might have been designed to explore a small or very regional dataset, and further research with a larger and more diverse pool of samples or participants might provide different results. Or the study might have been conducted for a limited amount of time, and in such cases, collecting data for a longer duration could provide greater insight. Authors typically suggest possible directions for future research, which may have been beyond the scope of their own investigation.

Gurley notes that the Methods section can be especially technical, and you can usually skip it if you’re just interested in the results. However, if you’re looking for certain specific details, like a thorough explanation of the sample pool or the precise name of a drug involved in a test, they would likely be found in this section. The Methods section is very technical because it’s intended to be used by other scientists who might want to replicate or expand upon the study. That said, it does provide an explanation for how the experiment was conducted, and sometimes it can be fascinating to read how the researchers gathered their data. In most cases, you could save this section to read last.

Evaluating a Research Study

One important thing to remember about research study conclusions is the difference between correlation and causation. A study might find that one thing is correlated with another, for example that certain chemical changes in the brain tend to occur at the same time as certain symptoms of a disease. But such a discovery, on its own, isn’t enough to say that those chemical changes are the cause of the symptoms. Further studies would need to be conducted to discover whether the chemical changes in fact cause the symptoms observed.

 

Always remember that a single research study, even if perfectly accurate and credible, is only part of a larger overall body of evidence to establish scientific truth.

 

The reason this difference is so important is that studies that establish a correlation can be easily misinterpreted as the discovery of a cause or a solution. For example, a study finding a possible link between exposure to a specific chemical and developing Alzheimer’s disease might be misreported with a careless headline like “Study Finds Exposure to X Causes Alzheimer’s,” when in fact the study itself did not make this conclusion; it only found an apparent correlation. Similarly, if a study finds that a drug seems to help relieve symptoms for a subset of patients, that doesn’t necessarily mean that the drug has been proven to cure the disease.

Unfortunately, not all cited research studies meet rigorous quality review or ethical publishing standards, and it can fall upon the public to evaluate if a study provides reliable evidence. There will likely always be individuals and companies peddling miracle cures for ailments, and they may cite scientific research to try to convince consumers of their products’ efficacy. But this cited research might not be credible.

To determine if a study is credible, start by looking at where it was published. Good journals use a clear peer review process. If a study appears in a well-known, respected journal, it has likely been reviewed carefully and meets basic scientific standards. That means it is usually safe to use as evidence to support a claim or position. Still, don’t take any claim at face value. It’s smart to double-check that a study actually says what someone claims it does. News stories, companies, or public figures can sometimes twist or oversimplify results to fit their message.

Watch out for low-quality or fake journals. Some exist mainly to charge authors fees and don’t truly review the work. They may publish studies without checking for accuracy, plagiarism, or ethics. Many of these illegitimate “predatory” journals are listed in the online resource Beall’s List of Potential Predatory Journals and Publishers.

If the journal seems trustworthy, next check when the study was published. Older studies aren’t always wrong, but newer research may offer better or updated results.

Look at how many people participated in a study. This is called the sample size. In general, more participants lead to more accurate conclusions. Pay attention to the demographics of the sample as well. A study with a mix of ages, backgrounds, and groups can give a broader picture. But some studies focus on a specific group—like older adults or people with a certain condition—to answer a more focused question. That’s okay, as long as it’s clearly explained.

Make sure the study’s limits are stated. For example, if the study only looked at men over 65, the results may not apply to everyone. News stories don’t always mention these details, so it’s worth checking for yourself.

Finally, check to see if the authors have any conflicts of interest. Good journals ask researchers to share anything that could affect their results, like working for a company that could benefit from the findings. You should also check who paid for the study. Research funded by companies is more likely to favor their interests, while studies funded by government or nonprofit groups are usually more neutral.

Always remember that a single research study, even if perfectly accurate and credible, is only part of a larger overall body of evidence to establish scientific truth. Studies often contradict each other and might provide different results over time or among different populations. While we feel it’s important to share discoveries in brain research that show the incredible progress scientists are making in their search for cures, we also want to remind readers that science requires repeated validation of results, and it takes time to get from hypothesis to discovery to available treatment. But keeping researchers continuously funded and working on our collective behalf is the best strategy to keep progress moving forward.

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

This has been a momentous year for the American Brain Foundation and the work that our donors support. We wanted to take a moment to recap some of the highlights. 

 

Next Generation Researchers

First, we’re extremely honored to support groundbreaking investigations by some of the best and brightest in the field of brain research. Currently, there are 26 recipients of American Brain Foundation Next Generation Research Grants working on active studies to better understand and respond to brain diseases and disorders, including 11 awardees who received new grants in 2025. We’re incredibly proud of this year’s class of researchers—not only are they pushing science forward with bold new studies that could make a significant impact on brain diseases, but also, they have been extremely kind and generous with their time, helping us promote their work and the grant opportunities available for early-career scientists. 

As with Next Generation Researchers selected in previous years, these talented individuals have been inspiring ambassadors for neuroscience and for independent grant funding. They attended the American Academy of Neurology’s Annual Meeting in San Diego in April, where they presented their work to other practicing neurologists; they’ve explained their work in one-on-one interviews; and participated in our Meet the Researchers webinar in September. If you missed it live, you can watch the conversation on our YouTube channel. It’s a great way to learn about their incredible work in their own words. 

All 26 of the active Next Generation research studies are possible thanks to the generosity of donors like you. Thank you so much for empowering these researchers. The value of what they will add to our understanding of the human brain, both now and throughout their careers, is incalculable and profound. 

Kimchi Lab Visit

In May, the Foundation’s board of directors and staff had the privilege of visiting a laboratory department at Northwestern University in Chicago led by Dr. Eyal Kimchi, who received a Next Generation Research Grant in 2014. We shared a full recap of this visit here on this blog in June. 

Lab visits like this are a chance for our staff to see, firsthand, the environment where brain research happens, the questions being asked, the challenges scientists face, and the persistence required to move discoveries forward. For a team that spends its time advocating for research funding and trying to communicate its impact to donors, these kinds of experiences bring us closer to our mission to cure brain disease. They transform the science from something we describe on paper to something we can more deeply understand and speak about with clarity and conviction. They also remind us that breakthroughs don’t happen overnight. They are built through years of careful study, collaboration, and determination. 

Before showing off the lab team’s active experiments to better understand delirium, a state of mental confusion that currently leads to a high mortality rate in intensive care units, Dr. Kimchi gave an expert presentation on how his 2014 Next Generation Research Grant laid the foundation for all we would see. The 2014 selection committee—comprised by venerable experts in the field of brain research—had recognized the merit of his proposal, but they also had the wisdom to appreciate its importance even though it didn’t easily fit into pre-defined categories. The research proposal had been a bit outside of the box: could experiments be designed to find a way to induce delirium in rodent models? If this could be achieved, it would then make it possible to closely study how delirium affects humans and develop approaches to help those patients. Embracing the American Brain Foundation’s philosophy of “cure one, cure many,” the committee recognized the potential impact these studies could make for many different brain diseases and selected Dr. Kimchi’s proposal for a Next Generation Research Grant. 

That grant provided Dr. Kimchi with the time and space he needed to figure out how to make mice delirious. His current work at Northwestern has built on that initial study. We got to see firsthand how the team monitored delirious mice, their brainwaves, and their behavior in ongoing experiments, as well as other projects to help translate and apply what they’re learning to human patients. We were all sincerely touched by the team’s hospitality and kindness. The team helped us understand how these experiments could lead to significantly improved outcomes for patients around the world.

Unfortunately, because of the federal government’s reckless decision in February to slash the budget for major institutions that invest in medical research, this work is in jeopardy. At the time we visited, the lab had not received any of the federal grant funding it had already been awarded for their further studies of delirium. 

Nashville Gala

This September, we brought together science, storytelling, and star power for our inaugural American Brain Foundation Gala: A Night of Brilliance and Breakthroughs at the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, Tennessee. The event celebrated the researchers working tirelessly to cure brain diseases and honored those who are using their platform to advocate for people living with these conditions. Broadway actor Chris Hanke hosted the evening with warmth and humor, keeping the room energized as supporters raised their paddles for once-in-a-lifetime prizes. We honored Sean Astin for his longtime commitment to mental health advocacy and Selma Blair for her fearless leadership in raising awareness of multiple sclerosis. And the NFL’s Jeff Miller accepted our first Game Changer Award for the League’s significant efforts to improve player safety and reduce head injuries, efforts which are leading to positive changes for the sport itself. 

The program also gave voice to the urgency behind the celebration. Executive Director Michelle Heritage spoke to address the global crisis of brain disease and how research is the only way to address this serious problem. American Academy of Neurology President Dr. Natalia Rost discussed the importance of collaboration and partnership in fighting brain disease. And Justine Fedak, who endured personal tragedy and a life-changing MS diagnosis, shared her own inspiring story. With a lot of hard work and the help of neurologist (and former Foundation board member) Dr. Stephen Hauser, she has managed to keep her symptoms in check to a remarkable extent, and she now serves as a public speaker who gives hope to those facing similar challenges. The evening concluded with an exclusive performance by award winning alternative rock band Guster. 

However, the most impressive aspect of the gala was the impact it had on brain research. It proved to be the most successful fundraising event in our organization’s history, raising nearly $1.5 million! The generosity of those in the room (including an anonymous donor who offered a $350,000 matching gift) and those who contributed from home surpassed our wildest expectations. We are so grateful for all who made the evening possible, all donors and sponsors, our excellent board of directors, the Hall of Fame staff and all on-site partners and helpers, the inspiring guests and awardees, and of course the scientists who are working toward our shared vision of life without brain disease. 

The American Brain Foundation Gala will return to Nashville next fall, and planning is already underway. More details will be announced next summer, and we hope to see y’all there! 

Breaking Records

This year, we received more applications for our grants than we’ve ever seen before. We received 111 applications from early-career clinician-scientists for next year’s Next Generation Research Grants, and we received more than 500 letters of intent for our Cure One, Cure Many Awards to study neuroinflammation and LBD. We’re truly humbled to see so much enthusiasm from the scientific community. While the cuts to federal grant funding no doubt contributed to this surge in interest, we’re incredibly grateful that the word is getting out about the opportunities made possible by our donors. We’ll be announcing the award recipients early next year, so stay tuned for those announcements! 

This year we’ve also set a record in terms of the overall amount of money we’ve distributed to fund research. Including Next Generation Research Grants and our Cure One, Cure Many Award to improve diagnosis for Lewy Body Dementia, the Foundation has awarded $5.7 million. This is the most we’ve ever given out in a calendar year. And it’s all thanks to donors like you, who recognize the value of investing in research now to improve outcomes in the future. Because you value research, selfish budget cuts to public research funding cannot extinguish hope of discovering new treatments, preventions, and cures. Thank you again for all you do to support research. Have a wonderful New Year! 

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.

As the year comes to a close, we wanted to give readers a sense of the current brain research landscape. This year’s major cuts to the budget for federal medical research have had a cascading negative effect on the broader field of health sciences, disrupting studies in progress, abandoning participants of medical trials, and discouraging aspiring researchers. Here we discuss some of the statistical data about the scale of the federal cuts, as well as the effects of recklessly terminating scientific research studies.

 

The Scale of This Year’s Budget Cuts

This February, the United States federal government made the decision to slash $2.3 billion from the annual budget for research studies through the National Institutes of Health (NIH). That includes $323 million for neuroscience research. These cuts have had many severe effects on national and international efforts to discover cures for conditions that affect billions of people worldwide, including Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and many others. 

At the American Brain Foundation, we’ve been doing everything we can to raise awareness about the seriousness of this situation. The grants that we award and distribute are funded entirely by donors, which means that they’re completely independent of government funding. However, NIH has traditionally provided the overwhelming majority of the overall grant money that pays for medical research. In essence, our grants are intended to supplement the established research funding infrastructure. Past recipients of American Brain Foundation awards (such as our Next Generation Research Grants) have found that these grants can support foundational studies that pave the way for later government-funded research projects. Institutions like NIH remain critically important to fueling discoveries and helping to protect future generations from the effects of brain disease. 

 

Cutting research funding means that it will take medical science longer to find cures for diseases.

 

Even for people following federal research funding closely, a figure like $2.3 billion is hard to visualize without context. So what follows is objective, factual data and direct links to review all the research studies that have been abruptly terminated. Thanks to an online resource called Grant Witness, you can see exactly how studies in progress have been cancelled, wasting time and money already invested for the public good, and you can see which specific studies have been terminated so far. 

See the Research Projects That Have Been Terminated

Grant Witness is a collaborative online project set up by a group of scientists and data analysts to track the termination of research grants in 2025. It includes data on grants from NIH, the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that have been disrupted this year and an ongoing record of the individual projects that were cancelled. The front page has a multi-colored map of the United States, and you can hover your cursor over any state to see the total number of grants that have been disrupted and the total amount of grant money each state has lost. Generally, more populated states have lost more money, in many cases hundreds of millions of dollars each. As of this writing, North Carolina has lost the most NIH funding (nearly $230 million), California has lost the most NSF research funding (more than $816 million), and New York has lost the most EPA research funding (more than $2 billion). 

Current totals by funding agency: 

	NIH	NSF	EPA
Total number of disrupted grants:	5,802	1,996	605
Number of possibly reinstated grants:	2,516	624	N/A
Current loss from disrupted grants:	$0.73B	$697.29M	$28.41B

 

A minority of grants have been successfully reinstated, largely due to court rulings brought against the government, and these research projects are tracked as well.

Grant Witness emphasizes transparency about its data collection methods, and it outlines them in detail. It also offers researchers the opportunity to submit updates about projects that were terminated, had funding frozen, or were reinstated. It also provides resources and guidance for researchers on how to appeal grant terminations.

Each of the three major funding agencies has updated tables (or “trackers”) of all the reported grant terminations. These include details identifying the specific award numbers and titles of the research projects. The trackers can be sorted and filtered in various ways, including by topic or keyword. Sadly, so many research projects aimed at studying Alzheimer’s disease were terminated that this topic has a dedicated filter for data sorting. This is in spite of the fact that we are facing an unprecedented dementia crisis that will become overwhelming in the future, as described by past Next Generation Research Grant recipient Joel Salinas, MD, in an article for Observer.

 

Together, we need to keep raising awareness about the value of investing in research, because it’s the only effective way to confront diseases.

 

Each of these studies went through a rigorous application process and thorough review from scientific experts. It is by no means easy to get a government grant for a research study. By definition, all of these studies have merit and the potential to provide beneficial insight. While some projects appear to have been terminated for focusing on racial or gender inequality (data that’s important to know to design and facilitate more equitable care and health outcomes), even a cursory examination of the list of disrupted research grants will illustrate a much broader culling of investigations.  

The Effects of Budget Cuts

You might be wondering how this reckless approach to reducing government spending affects researchers in the field, health care in general, or you and your family personally.

First, cutting research funding means that it will take medical science longer to find cures for diseases, including brain diseases. It’s very possible that such divestment in the future will prevent these discoveries from happening in our own lifetimes, and countless people around the world, including our loved ones and possibly ourselves, will end up suffering from diseases that we possibly could have cured. Research produces data that fuels other studies, and it builds momentum toward solving problems. Cutting so many research projects puts us far behind in these goals, and even if all eliminated studies were completely reinstated, it could take decades to rebuild the momentum that leads to cures.

As 2004 Next Generation Research Grant recipient Randy Bateman, MD, said in an interview with CBS News, “Research is not like building a building or painting a wall, where you can start and then stop for a few years and then go back and resume what you were doing. It’s much more like feeding a baby … if you stop doing that for a few weeks, it’s irrecoverable.”

The cuts have also had negative consequences for tens of thousands of people who are currently living with medical conditions and participating in trials of new treatments. PBS reports that the cuts affected more than 74,000 patients who were enrolled in experimental treatments for various conditions including cancer, heart disease, infectious disease, and brain disease. In some cases, trials were cut short or never began, or the results of the trials were never published. Developing new drugs or other treatments for disease often requires clinical trial participants. Patients who participate in such trials accept a certain amount of risk in hopes that the treatments will be beneficial for themselves and others, but the practice of stopping trials already in process could erode public trust. Worries that trials could be abruptly cancelled by budget cuts will likely make it more difficult to attract participants for future clinical trials and research projects.

While it’s true that other countries besides the United States fund medical research, that doesn’t mean other countries are unaffected by U.S. budget cuts, or that those other countries are able to pick up the slack. Research is frequently a collaborative effort, and many studies involve international teams working in separate countries. The NIH does fund research projects in other countries, supporting global health initiatives through direct grants and collaborative studies. But with reduced investment in research overall, there are fewer opportunities for scientists both at home and abroad. Recent NIH policy changes have also overhauled foreign grant-award structures and introduced new requirements. Being an international leader in scientific research had been a near-unanimous, bipartisan point of national pride for decades. But when we falter in our support for science, the rest of the world also feels the pain.

 

With federal funding being cut from thousands of research studies, the need for independent grants is greater than ever.

 

Another harsh reality about the federal funding cuts is that they have been dissuading young or aspiring brain scientists from pursuing careers in research. According to officials from the Society for Neuroscience (SfN), the conditions are pushing neuroscientists to consider jobs in other fields or leave the country. The severe reduction in opportunities to conduct brain research has caused enormous worry among early-career scientists and the neurology community, which just goes to show how integral a role public funding has played in neuroscience. A mass exodus of researchers would severely harm collective efforts to better understand, treat, and cure serious health conditions. Opportunities for brain research are clearly shrinking, further reducing the progress we can make toward the goal of life without brain disease.

How You Can Help

There are two ways you can help keep brain research moving forward. One is to directly contribute to independent funding of research grants. This is what our generous donors do. We are so grateful to all our donors who agree on the immediate necessity of research to understand and fight neurologic conditions, even if the results of this effort take time to bear fruit. If you’ve donated any amount in the past or supported our fundraising efforts in any way, we thank you. It’s made an enormous difference, leading to full funding for more than 300 research studies that have brought and will bring us ever closer to cures. Unfortunately, with federal funding being cut from thousands of research studies, the need for independent grants is greater than ever. We welcome any support you can provide to research in these difficult times. 

The other way you can help is by being a vocal advocate for research. Your elected representatives need to know that you, as a constituent, value NIH research and want to see its budget restored. If you’re reading this right now, it may be because brain disease has had an impact on you or your family, as it has and will for more than a third of the global population. If you feel comfortable sharing your story with others, it could help motivate support for meaningful policy changes. Scientists want to work, the public wants to support them, and every person of conscience wants to reduce or end suffering from devastating illnesses. Together, we need to keep raising awareness about the value of investing in research, because it’s the only effective way to confront diseases, reduce their power to hurt people, or eliminate them altogether. 

The slashing of the budget for research funding agencies was a terrible mistake that will prolong suffering and delay cures. But without strong public opposition, the government could cut funding even further in 2026. We must demand that heavy investment in research remain a national policy priority. 

 

 

The American Brain Foundation is committed to finding cures for all brain diseases and disorders. Donate today to make a difference. With your help, we can all experience life without brain disease.